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e"–pku|xLo ;~rf/sf] o'udf /]l8of]

–hgs/fh yklnof

/]l8of] k|;f/0f

;g\ !()! sf] l8;]Da/ !@ sf lbg dfsf]{gLn] /]l8of] t/Ësf] ;j{k|yd k/LIf0f u/] . :kfs{ 6«fG;ld6/ dfkm{t df];]{ sf]8sf] k|of]u ub}{ Go" kmfpG8 Nof08df S ;+s]t k|fKt u/] . ;g\ !()& df klxnf] k6s cfGb| dxf;fu/ kf/L a]tf/ Jofkfl/s ;]gfsf] ;'?jft /]l8of]åf/f ug{ ;kmn eP . :kfs{ 6«fG;ld6/sf] :yfg eg] qmdzM Eofs'd 6\o'jn] lnO/x]sf] lyof] . ;g\ !(@) df cff]j]g l8 of]Ë n] /]l8of] skf]{/]zg ckm cd]l/sf sf] ;'?jft u/] . h;nfO{ pgn] KDKA gfd lbP . ;Gf\ !(@) sf] gf]e]Da/ @ sf lbg ˆ|ofGs sfG/f8 / 8f]gf8 ln6nn] /ftL * ah] b]lv dWo/ft;Dd lgjf{rg kl/0ffdsf] k|;f/0f u/] . ;f]xL 36gf g} /]l8of] :6];g lgdf{0f / /]l8of] l/l;e/sf] lsga]rsf] j[l4 x'g' xf] . ;f]xL aif{sf] cGTolt/ k|To]s 3/df /]l8of]nfO{ dgf]/~hgsf] gofF dfWodsf] ?kdf dfGg yflnof] .

· kqsfl/tfsf] ljZj Oltxf;—8f= cRo't afj' sf]O/fnf

ljZjdf /]l8of]

k|;f/0f k"j{

/]l8of] k|;f/0f k|ljlwsf] ljsf;df ljleGg d'n'ssf w]/} j}1flgs / cg';Gwftfsf] of]ubfg 5 . a]nfotL j}1flgs h]D; DofS;j]nn] ljB'tLo r'DasLo t/Ëx?sf] k|;f/0f ;DaGwL ;}4flGts k'li6 ;g\ !*^) sf] bzsdf u/] . To;kl5sf bzsdf ef}lts zf:qLx?aLr ljB'tLo r'DasLo t/Ësf] oflGqs k|of]u ug]{ k|ljlw pTkfbg ug{ xf]8afhL rNof] . ;g\ !**) sf] bzsdf cd]l/sL j}1flgs yf]d; Pl8;g\ / hd{g j}1flgs x]gl/s xh{n] ljB'tLo r'DasLo t/Ëx? cGtl/Ifdf k|;f/0f x'G5g\ / ltgnfO{ s'g} l/l;e/n] ;dfTg ;S5 eGg] tYo Jofjxfl/s ?kdf k|dfl0ft u/] . !( cf}+ ztfAbLsf] clGtd bszdf k|mfG;]nL j}1flgs P8f]cf8{ a|fGnL, ?;L j}1flgs Pn]ShfG8/ kf]km / O6fn]nL u'O;KkL l/3Ln] /]l8of] k|;f/0f;DaGwL cg';Gwfgdf dxTjk"0f{ of]ubfg lbP . Tolt g} a]nf a]nfotL j}1flgs cf]lee/ nhn] df];{ sf]8 k|of]u u/L a]tf/ dfWodaf6 ;"rgf k7fpg ;Sg] / l/l;e/x?n] lglZrt 6«fG;ldl6ª :6];gx?af6 k7fOPsf o:tf ;"rgf ;dfTg ;S5g\ eGg] s'/f b]vfP .

* /]l8of] g]kfnsf] ;fdflhs Oltxf;—dfl6{g rf}tf/L

g]kfndf /]l8of]sf] z'?jftdf

clxn] xfdL sxf /]l8ofsf] s'g} sdL 5}g , lrQ a'em\g] sfo{qmd jf uLt ;+uLt cfPg eg] xfdLn] /]l8of] Jof08 3'dfO{ 3'dfO{ cfkm"nfO{ cfkm\gf] ?lr nfUg] sfo{qmd jf uLt ;+uLt 5fgL 5fgL ;'Gg ;S5f}+ . /]l8of]sf] ;+Vof j[l4 x'gfn] g} o:tf] df}sf kfOPsf] xf] . g]kfndf /]l8of]sf] ljsf; blIf0f Plzofs} nflu pbfx/0fLo ag]sf] 5 . ;dfrf/ jf ;dfrf/d"ns sfo{qmd / gLlh If]qsf Pkm=Pd= /]l8of]x?sf] j[l4 g} o;sf] sf/s x'g eGg lxrlsrfpg' kb{}g .

of] cj:yfdf cfpg /]l8of]sf] Oltxf;n] ljleGg r/0f kf/ u/]sf] 5 . g]kfndf /]l8ofsf] ljsf;df 7'nf] e"ldsf /]l8of] g]kfnn] g} v]n]sf] 5 . k|hftGq g]kfn /]l8of]sf] gfdaf6 lj/f6gu/ / ef]hk'/af6 rf]/L ( Pirated Radio) /]l8of]af6 /]l8of] g]kfnsf] z'?jft ePsf] xf] . ljZje/ g} k|foM ;/sf/ lj/f]wL cyf{t ljb|f]xLx?n] rf]/L /]l8of] rnfpg] u5{g\ . tTsflng /f0ff zf;gsf] lj/f]wdf k|hftGqjfbL g]kfnLx?n] of] /]l8of] z'? u/]sf lyP .

æof] k|hftGq g]kfn /]l8of] xf] . xfdL d'lQm ;+u|fdsf] s'g} c1ft df]rf{af6 af]ln/x]sf 5f}+====.Æ tf/0fL k|;fb sf]O{/fnfn] o:t} af]nL km'Sg] ug'{x'GYof] . lj= lk= sf]O{/fnf -uf]Ko gfd–a]s/_ sf] To;df ;lqmotf lyof] . @))& ;fndf k|hftGqsf] :yfkgf ePkl5 o;} /]l8of]nfO{ sf7df8f}+ NofO{of] .

/f0ffsfndf /]l8of]sf] :yfkgf t s] /]l8of] ;]6;Dd klg wgLdfgLx?n] dfq b]Vg kfpFy], Tof] klg n's]/ . hgtfsf 5f]/f5f]/L ;r]t x'g' zf;sx?sf] nflu kL8fbfoL x'GYof] . To;}n] k9\g n]Vg b]lv ;"rgf kfpg ;Dd y'g]/ cGwsf/df /fVg' g} cfkm\gf] ;kmntf 7fGy] zf;sx? . g]kfndf /]l8of] ;]6sf] k|j]z !(*) sf] bzslt/ dfq ePsf] cg'dfg 5 . z'?df b/jf/df l;ldt /x]sf] /]l8of] ;]6 kl5 lj:tf/} b/jf/sf cf;]kf;] tyf efO{e/bf/x?n] klg /fVg yfn] . o;/L b/af/ aflx/ k'u]sf /]l8of] ;]6x?nfO{ bf];|f] ljZjo'4tfsf s]xL ;do vf;]/ /fv] /f0ffx?n] . bf];|f] ljZjo'4kl5 g} ;j{;fwf/0f hgtfnfO{ /]l8of] /fVg kfpg] cg'dlt ldn]sf] xf] . /fdeQm sxlnPsf >L # kß zD;]/n] ;j{k|yd d /fi6«sf] gf]s/ x'F eGg] cleJolQm lb+b} @))# df3 !$ ut]b]lv tTsflng lah'nL c8\8faf6 /]l8of] k|;f/0f z'? u/]–lbpF;f] Psah] ehgx? ;'gfpg . @))% ;fpg @) a'wjf/ uf]/vfkqdf o:tf] ;dfrf/ 5flkPsf] lyof] –sf7df8f}+ >fj0f !( ut] lxhf] c7f/ ut], a]n'sf ;ft ah] g]kfnL 6foddf sf7df8f}+af6 /]l8of]sf %) / $) ld6/df g]kfnL a|f]8sf:6 ePsf] lyof] . ;f] g]kfnsf ;a} /]l8of]x?af6 /fd|f] :k:6 ;'lgPsf] lyof] . t/ of] k|;f/0f slt;Dd lyof] eGg] af/]df s]xL eGg ;lsGg .

Satellite Communication -:of6nfO6 ;+rf/_

cGt/b]lzo b'/;+rf/ ;]jfsf] nfuL xfOlk|mSj]G;L /]l8of]af6 w]/} Rofgn pknAw gx'g', dfOqmf]j]e ;+rf/ k|0ffnLdf k|To]s %), %) lsnf]ld6/df l/lk6/ :6]zg :yfkgf ug'{kg{} emGem6 ePsf]n] Hofb} nfdf] dfOqm]j]e ;+rf/ k|0fnL d/dt ;+ef/ tyf ;+rfngsf] b[li6«sf]0faf6 klg Jojxfl/s gx'g', ;d'Gb| ghf]l8Psf] d'n'sx?sf] nfuL ;j d]l/g s]j'n -;d'Gb|d'gLsf] tf/_ pkof]uL gx'g' h:tf sf/0fx? / cGt/dxfb]zLo ;+rf/ ;]jfsf] nfuL pko'St ;]jf sf] ljsf; ePsf] xf] . of] cjwf/0fsf] ljsf; !(^) b]lv g} ;'?jft ePsf] kfOG5 .

;Dk"0f{ ljZjnfO{ Ps cfk;df ;+rf/ ;+hfnaf6 cfj4 ug{ k[YjLsf e"dWo]/]vfaf6 #^))) lsnf]ld6/ dfyL k[YjLsf] sIfdf :yfkLt # j6f :yL/ e"–pku|xsf] dfWodaf6 ;Dej x'g] atfOG5 . ;g\ !(%^ df ;jd]l/g s]j'n sf] dfWooda6 cGt/b]zLo 6]lnkmf]6g z'? eof] t/ /]l8of] l6eLsf] nfuL eg] ;j d]l/g TotL pkof]lu l;4 x'g ;s]g . o;}sf] ljsnksf] ?kdf !(%^df OG6n:of6sf] cln{}j8{ gfds klxnf] :of6]nfO6 k|If]k0f z'? eof] . e'–pku|x ;+rf/ klg dfOqmf]j]e ;+rf/ k|0ffnL s} kl/jf/ cGt{ut kb{5 . o; ;]jfdf l/lk6/sf] sfd e'dWo]/]vfaf6 #^))) lsnf]dl6/ 6f9f cfsfzsf] :yL/ cGtl/If sIfdf :yfkgf ePsf] e"–pku|xn] ub{5 . ;g\ !(%& df tTsflng ;f]leot ;+3af6 k7fOPsf] :k'tlgs ! e|–pku|x, ;g\ !(^) df cd]l/sfdf cGt/b]zLo / cGt/fli6«o b'/;+rf/ ;]jfsf] nfuL sd:of6skf{]/];g sf] :yfkgf x'g', ;g\ 19^@ df 6]N;6f/ ! e"–pku|xsf] k|If]k0f ug'{ ;g\ !(^@ df klxnf] k6s k/LIf0fsf] ?kdf k|mfG;, a]nfot / cd]l/sfdf :yfkgf ePsf cy{ :6]zgx? aLr ;Dks{ x'g', ;g\ !(^# df #)) 6]lnkmf]g / s]xL /]l8of], l6eL Rofgn Ifdtfsf] k|If]k0f ug'{ , ;g\ !(^$ df OG6n:of6sf] :yfkgf x'g' e"— pku|x ;+rf/ k|0ffnLsf] ljsf;sf] Oltxg;sf dxTk"0f{ pknAwL x'g eg]/ eGg ;lsG5 .

e"–pku|x ;+rf/ k|0ffnLsf sf/0f ljZjJofkL ?kdf /]l8of] k|zf/0fdf lgDd s'/fx?n] ubf{ nf]slk|o x'g;s]sf] 5 .

!= b'/Lsf] aGb]h gx'g] !) lsnf]ld6/ jf @))) lsnf]ld6/df ;Gb]z k7fpg plQs} vr{ nfUg] .

@= ljleGg :yfgx?aLr ;Dks{ ug{ ;+}s8f}+ JolStsf :j/, /]l8of] sfo{qmdx? Ps} avt Ps :yfgaf6 k|;f/0f ug{ km/flsnf] dfWood pknAw x'g] .

#= k[YjLsf] clwsf+; efu ;d]6\g] u/L e"–pku|xn] dfOqmf]j]e ;+rf/ k|0ffnLsf] l/lk6/ :6];gsf] sfd ug{] .

$= vf]nfgfnf, 8fF8fkfvf, zx/LIf]q, d?e"dL cflbsf] Vofn ug{ kg{] cj:yf gcfpg] .

%= ;fgf] / 7'nf] zx/df Ps} gf;sf] ;]jf pknAw u/fpg ;lsg] .

^= dfOqmf]j]e ;+rf/ k|0ffnLsf] ljsNksf] ?kdf k|of]u x'g] .

&= sd ;dodf b'u{d tyf clt ljs6 If]qdf /]l8of] k|;f/0f ug{ ;lsg] .

*= h'g;'s} ;dodf /]l8of] ;]jf k'¥ofpg ;Sg] jf h'g;'s} If]qaf6 k|ToIf k|;f/0f ug{ ;lsg] .

k|;f/0f k|lqmof

:of6]nfO6 /]l8of] k|;f/0f cGo /]l8of] h:t} xf] t/ o;sf] k|ljlws kIf dfq} km/s xf] . o;df k|;f/0f x'g] ;fdfu|L / cGo s'/fx? em6\6 x]bf{ cGo /]l8of]df eGbf s]xL km/s b]lvb}g t/ u'0f:t/df eg] cGo 6]/]:6]l/on /]l8of] ;]jfsf] eGbf &) u'0f km/s x'g] x'G5 .

o;f] eGbf s;/L x'G5 :of6]nfO6 /]l8of] k|;f/0f eGg] k|Zg cfp5 g} . Ps} jfSo df eGbf :of6]nfO6 /]l8of] Tof] xf] h;af6 aHg] ;fdfu|L :of6]nfO6af6 k|If]k0f x'G5 . cGtl/If tkm{sf] e"–pku|x / e"–pku|xsf] lgoGq0fdf /x]sf] /]l8of] pks/0fx?sf] l7s tl/sfaf6 sfd ul//x]sf 5g, 5}gg cflb s'/f kl/If0f ug{], lgoGq0f ug{] h:tf sfd ug{] ;+rf/ s]Gb|klg cGt/LIf s} efu leq kb{5 . cGtl/Ifdf /x]sf] e'pku|xsf] e'efudf /x]sf] cy{–:6];gaf6 k|zf/Lt /]l8of] t/ª\u k|fKt x'g] k|s[ofnfO{ cklnª\s elgG5 . e'–pku|xaf6 cy{–:6];g tkm{ k|;f/Lt x'g] k|s[ofnfO{ 8fpg–ln+s elgG5 . cklnªs ;+jfxs lk|msj]G;Lx?sf ;+s]t4f/f k|fKt ug{], ;+s]tnfO{ lj:t[t ug{] 8fpg ln+s lk|mSj]G;L j}08df kl/j{tg ug{] h:tf sfd ug{] e"–pku|xl:yt ;fwgnfO{ 6«fG;kf]G8/ elgG5 . 6«fG;kf]G8/sf] l/l;e/df k|fKt /]l8of] ;+s]tsf] kfj/ !)) lksf]jf6 b]vL ! Gofgf]jf6 x'G5 eg] 6«fG;kf]G8/sf] PlDKnkmfo/sf] cfp6k'6 kfj/ !# b]lv !)) jf6 ;Dd x'g] x'G5 .

· cGtdf

;+rf/sf] o'udf :of6]nfO6 /]l8of] k|;f/0f

cfhsf] o'unfO{ ;+rf/sf] o'u elgG5 . lsgsL s'g} klg s'/f cj b'/Lsf lx;fjn] / cGo sf/0fn] ubf{ c;Dej eGg] /x]g . ljZjsf] s'g} klg s'gfdf /x]/ klg cfkm'nfO{ cfjZos s'/fx? hfGg / a'em\g ;lsg] ePsf] . of] s] sf/0fn] xf] eGbf o;sf] pQ/ dfq :of6]nfO6 k|ljlwsf] ljs;n] eGg] cfp5 .

o; sf/0f klg :of6]nfO6af6 /]l8of] k|zf/0f x'bf /]l8of] >f]tfx? nfefGjLt 5g g} . :of6]nfO6 s} sf/0f ;;f/ l;dfg /lxt ePsf] 5 . s'g} klg /fi6«n] l;dfgf s} sf/0f /]l8of] ;'Gg gkfpg] eGg] /x]g . o:t} csf{] dxTjk"0f{ s'/f eg]sf] ;+:s[lt lj:tf/ klg dxTjk"0f{ s'/f xf] . Global Village sf] sG;]K6 klg o;} sf/0fn] ePsf] xf] . o:t} Jofkf/ Joj;fo lj:tf/, km];g, lkmNd cflbn] klg ljZje/ km}ng of] k|ljwsf] 7'nf] xft /x]sf] 5 .

o;/L :of6nfO6 /]l8of] k|zf/0fn] ubf{ kmfObf dfq} ePsf] eg] kSs} 5g . o;sf] dxTjk"0f{ j]kmfbf eg]sf] u/La b]zsf /]l8of] dfWood h''g :of6]nfO6 k|ljlwaf6 k|;f/0f ug{ ;Sb}gg nfO{ c;/ kl//x]sf] x'G5 . 7'nf] df5fn] ;fgf] df5fnfO{ vfg] sfg"g oxf nfu' x'g cfp5 . o;f] u/La b]zsf /]l8of]x? kl5 sf] kl5 g} x'G5g / pgLx?n] k|;f/0f u/]sf] ;fdfu|Lx? sf] dfs{]6 ;fgf] / l;ldt x'g] u5{ . o;sf] HjfnGt pbfx/0f ljljl; ljZj ;]jf / g]kfnsf] /]l8of] g]kfnnfO g} t'ngf ug{ ;lsG5 . ;fy} 7'nf ldl8of hf] :of6]nfO6df lnª\s 5g ltgLx?sf] nufgL / ;fdfu|Lsf lx;fan] klg pRr:t/sf x'g] x'G5g o;n] ubf{ >f]tfn] g/fd|f] eGbf /fd|f] g} vf]Hg] x'G5 . csf{] c;/ eg]sf] ;f:s[lts ;fdfHosf] lj:tf/ klg Ps xf] . zlStzfnL k|f;f/0f ;:yfnL cfkm\gf] Intrest sf] sfo{qmd hj/h:tL nfb\g] u5{ . lsgsL o;df p;sf] nufgL 5 . o;f] x'bf cGo ;|f]tfx? dfyL Psk|sf/sf] ;fd|fHo u/L/x]sf] x'G5 . csf{] c;/ eg]sf] cNkdtdf /x]sfx? emg emg tn kg{] x'G5 . lsgsL Toxf pgLx?sf] cfjfh cfpb}g . o:t} :of6nfO6 dxª\uf] k|ljlw xf] . hf] s;}sf] o;df kx'r gx'g klg ;S5 .

cGtdf h] ;'s} ePklg o;sf] c;/ eGbf kmfObf w]/} /x]sf 5g g]kfn h:tf] ljs6 b]zn] o;sf] pkof]u ug{ ;s]sf /fi6«nfO{ / >f]tf b'j}nfO{ kmfObf x'g] b]lvG5 .

blIf0f Pl;ofnL /fi6«x?df :of6]nfO6af6 /]l8of] k|f;/0f ug{] ef/tg} klxnf] xf] . ef/taf6 k|;f/0f x'g] cn OG8Lof /]l8of]n] :of6]nfO6s} sf/0fn] ubf{ Pl;ofdf dfq} @)) eGbf al9 :6];gaf6 k|;f/0f u/L/x]sf] 5 . ljleGg () efiffsf #)) a'n]l6gx? x/]s lbg k|;f/0f u/L/x]sf] x'G5 . cn OlG8of /]l8of] ljZjsf k|foM d'n'sx?sf :ki6 ;'lgg] atfOG5 . o:t} kfls:tdfd klg /]l8of] kfls:tfg :of6]nfO6af6 g} k|;f/0f x'g] u5{ . kfls:tfg :jtGq x'bf b]lv g} :yfkgf ePsf] kls:tfg /]l8of]n] cfGt/Ls / ljb]zL eg/] 5'6\6\ 5'6} a'n]l6g k|zf/0f ug{] u/]sf] kfOG5 .

g]kfndf :of6nfO6 /]l8of]

g]kfnsf ljleGg /]l8of] :6];gx?n] klg cfkm'nfO{ :of6]nfO6af6 k|zf;/0f ul/Psf] elgPklg a:tjdf pgLx?n] cGo ljleGg lnª\saf6 k|;f/0f ul//x]sf] 5g . pgLx?n] cfkm'nfO{ :of6nfO6 /]l8of] o;cy{df elg/x]sf 5g ls pgLx?n] ahfpg] ;dfu|Lx? ljleGg :of6nfO6sf] dfWodaf6 k|fKt ug{] u5{g . cfOPghLcf]sf] ?kdf :yfkgf ePsf ljleGg ;:yfx? PG6]gf kmfp08];g, OSjon PS;]; h:tf ;:yfx?n] /]l8of] ;fdfu|L cfkm}n] pTkfbg u/]/ ljleGg /]l8of] :6];g ;Dd :of6nfO6sf] dfWoodaf6 k'¥ofpg] u5{g . o; sf/0fn] pgLx? cfkm'nfO{ :of6nfO6 /]l8of] k|zf/s eG5g t/ pgLx?;Fu 5'6\6} /]l8of] Jof08 eg] 5}g . o:t} pbfx?0fsf] nfuL pHofnf] PkmPd nfO klg lng ;lsG5 . pHofnf] PkmPdn] df]km;nsf s/La @) j6f PkmPdx?nfO{ :of6nfO6 ln+ssf cfwf/df Pp6} ;dodf /]l8of] ;fdfu|L ljt/0f ul//x]sf] 5 . cGo ;fs{ /fi6«x?df >Ln+sf, ckmufgL:tfg, e'6fg dflNbzdf /x]sf /]l8of]x? eg] :of6]nfO6df k'u]sf 5}gg . — hf]g xj{6÷

;Gbe{ ;fdu|L

d}gfnL, /3'================jl/i7 /]l8of]sdL{

;'g'jf/, kf08j÷@)%^÷/]l8of] k|;f/0fsf cf/f]x cj/f]x, /]l8of] g]kfn

sf]O/fnf, 8f=cRo'tafa'÷@)^)÷kqsfl/tfsf] ljZj Oltxf;,h]=s]=hL= a'S;

;df{ b'uf{gfy ÷@)%$÷k|;f/0f kqsfl/tf xft] lstfj -;Dkfbs_

/]l8of]g]kfnsf] :yfkgf / o;sf k|sfzgx?–lzj /]UdL–emÍf/ :j0f{ dxf]T;j :dfl/sf

Brief Survey of Broadcat Media Theory

Broadcast Media Theory

Background

Concept of mass communication has established first half of the 19^th century. While news media, especially newspapers have gone in mass circulation; the word “mass” coined. It was the time when penny press came into existence in 1830s. Yellow Journalism of late 19th century further proved it.

While newspaper has become mass circulation in the western world, it was believed media has great power. During the First World War there were massive misuse of printing media, and even radio technology to defend the national interest and attack the enemy countries. There was no regular radio broadcasting. After the war, beyond print media- radio also debut its regular casting. And, communication research has begun by western scholars, especially focused on power of mass media. In another word, the concept of media propaganda came into existence.

Radio and television have, respectively, an eighty-plus- and fifty-plus-year history as mass medium, and both grew out of pre-existing technologies-telephone, telegraph, moving and still photography. According to R. Williams cited in McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory", “Unlike all previous communication technologies, radio and television were system primarily designed for transmission and reception as abstract processes, with little or no definition of preceding content.” However, both came to borrow from existing media, and most of the popular content forms of both are derivative from film, music, stories, news and sport.

So, there is no special and distinctive theory for broadcasting. For instance, a hypodermic needle or magic bullet theory was based on wartime propaganda, covered by the print and electronic media as well. There is no special theory for print propaganda and propaganda through broadcast media such as radio and television. So, McQuails points out that "mass communication has no special theory or models for broadcasting or printing media." There are hundreds of concepts, theories and models related to mass communication channels and it’s functioning. None of the scholar and theorist has assessed mass communication channels like print-radio and television, separately for establishing its specific theory.

However, Marshall McLuhan, Geroge Gerbner are the leading figures among the scholars who tried to make distinction in broadcasting media effects. McLuhan, a Canadian professor of English who took degrees on all human sciences except mass communication, and established some controversial theories and concepts about that subject he was not master. Critics comment he didn't establish any theory but only the concepts that become all the time controversial and utopian. But, time has proved his thought "Global Village" that proved him as a visionary communication scholar.

'Hot' and 'Cool' Media

In McLuhan’s terms a hot medium refers to “one that extends a single sense in high definition: it provides all the necessary data.” And a cool medium “extends multiple senses in low definition, or with little information.” Hot media include print, an extension of the eye. He said radio as an extension of hearing, in which all of the information is provided by the audio transmission and photographs, which are high definition deceptions that extend our sense of sight.

But cartoon is a cool medium. Because, he argued, “It has low definition: it provides only a minimum of information from which the viewer tries to fill in the missing parts to make sense of the whole” (Clarifying Communication Theories, 2003 London). The hot vs. cool distinction is a continuum. For example, a movie shown in a theater is a hot medium. Although it extends the senses of sight and sound, and perhaps other bodily senses such as heart and pulse rates, tears or laughter. McLuhan considers film is hot because it is a high-definition medium. Movies are like reading a novel: an individual experience with the medium providing all the data. Raymond Gozzi Jr. comments in his review ‘Hot and cool media’ (1992, ETC: A Review of General Semantics p. 49), “film and the documentary are hottest media ever because of its great audience attention.”

Television medium is considers as a cool medium. Because, “it has nothing in common with film or photo” argues Gerald Stone, a communication professor of Southern Illinois University at Carbondale in a compiled book, Clarifying Communication Theories, 2003, ”Insted of being the rendering of light on film, as is a movie, television is light on a screen composed of about three million dots flashing per second in electronic lines.” The television viewers select the several dozen each instant to compose an image. The electronic dots represent television a low-definition medium, one that requires viewer participation to make sense of the image.

Simply, we can reach the conclusion that the medium, which attracts the higher audience’s attention, that is hot. And which attracts the lower degree of audience’s attention that is cold medium. In this respect, print medium is the hot and the television is cool media. Radio lies in between. This concept appears to force media into binary categories. However, McLuhan's "hot" and "cool" exist on a continuum: they are more correctly measured on a scale than dichotomous terms.

Brain Hemisphericity

The concept of Brain Hemisphericity- the psychological term that McLuhan borrows to correlate human cognition (mind) and the media also supports the thought of hot and cold media.

Psychologists find the evidence that left side of human brain controls speaking, reading and math (the more logical processing functions), while the right side control intuition, visual images and spatial relations (the more creative or imaginative functions). Study showed that television viewing is related to right-brain processing with low involvement, while news newspaper reading is related to left-brain processing with high involvement. Herbert E. Krugman comments in his book, “Memory without recall, exposure without perception-1997, p 201”, “So, McLuhan wrote about these findings that fit his theory about hot and cool media.”

Medium is the Message

Perhaps the strongest statement in Mcluhan’s retinue, this is the theme that covers all of his writings. He adopted the term "massage" to denote the effect each medium has on the human sensorium, inventorying the "effects" of numerous media in terms of how they "massage" the sensorium.

In the Medium is the Message, he also rehashed the argument that media are "exteension" of our human senses, bodies and minds. Finally, McLuhan described key points of change in how man has viewed the world and how these views were changed by the adoption of new media. "The technique of invention was the discovery of the nineteenth century", brought on by the adoption of fixed points of view and perspective by typography, while "the technique of the suspended judgment is the discovery of the twentieth century" brought on by the bard abilities of radio, movies and television.

McLuhan claims that not only are the "ages of civilization" a phrase that he coined to describe the human civilization, determined by the prevailing medium but also that each medium has a power that far exceeds content. Actually, while he does use media content in examples to further his pronouncements, his single, overriding theme is that content should be ignored as critics evaluate the impact on society made by the advent of media.

McLuhan for Reviewers

Denis McQuail tagged his concepts are the most influential on electronic media ever. In his book, "Clarifying Communication Theories” Gerald Stone argues that “critics charge McLuhan was far too exotic in his conjectures; that his substantiating examples were exception rather than the rule, that juxtaposing art, religion and architecture with communication theory was a forced marriage at best; and that his statements are vague, distorted and beyond proof.”

Certainly, the last of these criticisms seemed to be true. Although very few researchers tried to test his theories, little support was found for any of McLuhan’s hypothesis.

Time Proved His Concept

Despite those who would ridicule McLuhan’s theories, some of his ideas have not only stood the test of time, but time seems to have conferred more proof than the research.

His concept of “Global Village”- the term he used four-decade before- 1964, contemporary events lend credence to the idea of a shrinking world brought about through the electronic media. Google Earth is a vivid image that proved McLuhan’s concept through Internet. Now, the world unites in watching the Olympics. Previous United States of America dominance of the flow of information and entertainment has given way to international exchanges. Because of technological revolution, that McLuhan predicted- makes contra-flow of information against North American and Western Europe’s domination.

Cultivation Theory

Apart from McLuhan, George Gerbner, an American researcher on media effects, also established a concept on television that is called Gerbner’s cultivation theory. He argues, on the basis of several decades of research and data collection that television is central to American culture, and that heavy viewers of television tend to perceive the world in terms of “TV reality”(Narula, 2000).

Cultivation, for Gerbner, means that television teaches a common worldview to its audience. For example, one result of the predominance of police and crime shows, and other violent fare is that heavy viewers tend to overestimate the likelihood of being crime victims and have a greater sense of insecurity than light viewers of television. Gerbner calls this view of heightened risk and violence the “mean world” syndrome. His research has shown that in the “TV world” people in lower socio-economic classes are significantly under-represented, the white females are 17 times more likely than white males to be crime victims, and villain are disproportionately Latino (Latin American males) or foreign males (Stone et al. 2003).

All of the television violence, Gerbner argues, leads people to perceive that violent behavior is normal, which in turn means citizens are more willing than ever to grant the state more police power and to increasingly support the death penalty. With all violence and public approval of stern countermeasures, fascism is an ever-present threat. And that completes the circle, returning to Gerbner’s experiences with fascism in his earlier days. “Even in his retirement, Gerbner calls himself a ‘part time-researcher, full time agitator’, mentioned Virginia P. Richmond, a mass communication professor of West Virginia University at Morgantown in his paper “Gerbner’s Legacy.”

Contemporary research since the 1970s is seeing the pendulum swing back to some of the earlier conclusions about the powerful influence of the media. One reason for this is the growing presence and popularity of television; recent research also has looked at the pervasiveness of films (particularly on videocassette) and the Internet. The current assumption is that the media should not be dismissed as having little influence. Rather, they have a powerful but long-term cumulative and collective effect.

Catharsis Theory and Media Effects

Brad Bushman presented such view that is binary opposite of what Gerbner has presented. He argued that viewing violence in media especially television and movies become cathartic. The word catharsis comes from the Greek word katharsis, which literally translated means "a cleansing or purging."

The first recorded mention of catharsis occurred more than one thousand years ago, in the work Poetics by Aristotle. Aristotle taught that viewing tragic plays gave people emotional release (katharsis) from negative feelings such as pity, fear, and anger. By watching the characters in the play experience tragic events, the negative feelings of the viewer were presumably purged and cleansed. This emotional cleansing was believed to be beneficial to both the individual and society.

Catharsis theory did not die with Aristotle. The ancient notion of catharsis was revivd. Many directors and producers of violent media claim that their products are cathartic. For example, Alfred Hitchcock, director of the movie Psycho, said, "One of television's greatest contributions is that it brought murder back into the home where it belongs. Seeing a murder on television can be good therapy. It can help work off one's antagonism." More recently, in 1992, Paul Verhoeven, director of the movie Total Recall, said, "I think it's a kind of purifying experience to see violence (Cited in Stone et al. 2003. "Effects of Televised Violence on Aggression."

The producers of violent computer games, like the producers of violent films, claim that their products are cathartic. For example, Sega Soft has created an online network containing violent games that claims to provide users an outlet for the "primal human urge to kill." In promotional materials for the fictional CyberDivision movement, the imaginary founder Dr. Bartha says, "We kill. It's OK. It's not our fault any more than breathing or urinating." Dr. Bartha claims that aggressive urges and impulses can be purged by playing violent video games. "It's a marketing campaign," said a SegaSoft spokesperson, "but there is some validity to the concept that you need an outlet for aggressive urges."

Some people who play violent computer games, such as the following thirty-year-old video game player, agree: "When the world pisses you off and you need a place to vent, Quake [a violent video game] is a great place for it. You can kill somebody and watch the blood run down the walls, and it feels good. But when it's done, you're rid of it."

Catharsis theory is elegant and highly plausible, but it is false. It justifies and perpetuates the myth that viewing violence is healthy and beneficial, when in fact viewing violence is unhealthy and detrimental. After reviewing the scientific research, Carol Tavris (1988) concluded, "It is time to put a bullet, once and for all, through the heart of the catharsis hypothesis. The belief that observing violence (or 'ventilating it') gets rid of hostilities has virtually never been supported by research."

Medium as Problem or Scapegoat

Media is taken as the forth estate of nation-state. It is believed that it has social responsibility functions including educate, aware, persuade, convince, and inform the greater mass of the society, In another word, it is taken as a immense tool for national development and image building weapon even in developing, capitalist and socialist world as well.

However, new ills have also been found to lay at the door of the media, especially such phenomena as violent political protest and demonstration, xenophobia and even the supposed decline of democracy and rise of political apathy and cynicism. Individual harms now include references to depression, obesity and lack of confidence. The most recent object of such waves of alarm has been the Internet, suspected of encouraging pedophilia, violence and hate as well as aiding terrorist organizations and international crime. Same things could happen even through television rather than any other electronic medium (except Internet) or printing materials.

McQuail defines it as a “moral panics” relating to the media. He argues, “Paradoxically or not, it has usually been the media themselves that have highlighted and amplified many of these alarmist views, perhaps because they seem to confirm the power of media, but more likely because they are already popularly believed and help to ‘sell newspapers or programmes’ to the larger number of audience.”

Conclusion

We can reach the conclusion that there is no special theory for television and radio. Some communication scholars, however, have assessed broadcasting media differently because of their functioning. McLuhan, Gerbner and Bushman are among them who argued electronic media (excluded Internet) have impact differently to it's audience. That's true but as Stone argued "only effects don't shape any model/theory" mentionable. So their arguments are more "concepts" rather than especially theory or model. Accroding to McQuail, author of one of the most cited communication books, "Mass Communication Theory", the theory and models of media is more based on geo-political system of nation states rather than its effects.

Bibliography

1. McQuail, Danis. 2000, Mass Communication Theory, Fourth edition. London: Sage Publication.

2. McQuail, Danis. 2005, Mass Communication Theory, Fifth edition. New Delhi: Vistaar Publications.

3. Narula, Uma. 2000, 'Models of Communication'. MassCommunication Theory and Practice, pp. 41. New Delhi: Surgeet Publications.

4. Stone, Gerald et al. 2003, 'Gerbner's Cultivation'. Clarifying Communication Theories, pp. 171. New Delhi: Surgeet Publications.

5. Stone, Gerald et al. 2003, 'McLuhan's Legacy'. Clarifying Communication Theories, pp. 213. New Delhi: Surgeet Publications.

6. McLuhan, Marshall (1964), Understanding Media:The extensions of Man. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Link: http://faculty.buffalostate.edu/smithrd/UAE%20Communication/Unit11.pdf

7. Reymond Gozzi Jr. (1992). “Hot” and ” cool” Media. ETC: A Review of General Semantics 49(2):227-230.

Link: http://faculty.buffalostate.edu/smithrd/UAE%20Communication/Unit12.pdf

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l;ldt ;doleq km/s efiff / km/s ;d"bfosf ;j} ;|f]tfnfO{ ;d]6\g' Psflt/ r'gf}tL /x]sf] 5 eg] csf]{lt/ ljljw sfo{qmddf ;Gt'ng sfod /flv ;j} ;|f]tfnfO{ ;d]6\g' /]l8of]sf] bf];|f] 7"nf] r'gf}tL /x]sf] 5 . ljleGg pd]/, ;d"x ?rL ePsf ;|f]tfnfO{ Pp6f dfWod dfkm{t ;d]6\g vf]Hg' cfkm}df Pp6f 7"nf] r'gf}lt xf] . o;sf] afa'h'b klg z}lIfs ;"rgfd"ns / dgf]/~hgfTds sfo{qmddf ;Gt'ng sfod ug'{ csf]{ r"gf}tL xf] . kl5Nnf] ;dodf lghL If]qsf Joj;flos /]l8of]aLr k|ltZkwf{df cufl8 kg{ :j:Yo,afnaflnsf, o'jf, s[lif h:tf z}lIfs lqmofsnfk lxGbL, g]kfnL tyf c+u|]hL uLt, ;+uLt / ljleGg /]l8of] l/kf]6{, ;d;fdoLs ultljlwsf ;fdfu|L k|:t't ug]{ k|lt:kwf{ a9\bf] 5 . /]l8of]sf] ;do cg';f/, o;sf] sfo{qmd km/\Dof6 agfpg ;Sof] eg]dfq k|ltZkwf{df cufl8 kg{ ;lsG5 . o;df ;|f]tfsf] cfjZostf tyf rfxgf cg';f/sf ljleGg sfo{qmdx? agfpg ;lsG5, h'g cGo dfWoddf s]xL u|fxf] x'g;S5 . ;|f]tfx?sf] dfu cg';f/ sfo{qmddf k]m/abn ug{ ;lsg] x'gfn] klg /]l8of]sf] ;Defjgf g]kfnh:tf] d"n'sdf cem Jofks 5 .

Pkm=Pd sf] cfudg

/]l8of] g]kfn :yfkgfsf] sl/j %) jif{kl5 g]kfnL cfsfzdf /]l8of] g]kfn afx]s cGo :6]zgsf] cfjfh ;'Gg yflnof] of] z'?jft Pkm=Pdsf] lyof] . @)%# ;fndf klxnf] Pkm=Pd=sf7df08f}+ FM 100M.HZ af6 aHg yfNof] h;nfO{ /]l8of] g]kfnn] z'? u/]sf] lyof], To;sf] ! jif{kl5 @)%$ ;fn h]i7df klxnf] :jtGq /]l8of] :6]zg /]l8of] ;u/dfyf sf] :yfkgf eof] . of] g]kfnsf] dfq xf]Og blIf0f Pl;ofs} klxnf] :jtGq /]l8of] aGg] k'Uof] . /]l8of] ;u/dfyf sf] :yfkgf / cfudg z'?jft dfq lyof] jf:tjdf Pkm Pdsf] z'?jftn] g} g]kfndf /]l8of]sf] dxTjnfO{ phfu/ u/\of] . t/ F.M. ;Grfng ug{ kfpg] u/L ;Grfng cg'dlt lbg] sfd eg] ;~rf/ gLlt @)$( n] u/]sf] lyof] h;df pNn]v ul/P cg';f/ /]l8of] / 6]lehgaf6 k|;f/0f x'g] sfo{qmdx?sf] pTkfbgdf lglh If]qsf] ;xeflutf a9fpFb} n}hfg] / k|;f/0f P]g cGt/ut /lx lglh If]qsf ;+ul7t ;+:yfnfO{ klg lglZrt If]qdf lk|mSj]G;L df]8'n]zg (F.M) k|;f/0f k|0ffnL :yfkgf ul/ lzIff, dgf]/~hgfTds sfo{qmd k|;f/0f ug{ lbg] gLlt o;n] lnPsf] lyof] . h;sf] kmn:j?k 5f]6f] ;dodf g} sf7df8f}+ pkTosf leq / aflx/ w]/} Pkm=Pd= x?n] k|;f/0fsf] cg'dlt kfP . sf7df8f}+ pkTosf aflx/ kfNkfdf dbgkf]v/f ufpF ljsf; ;ldlt / ?kGb]xLdf n'DaLgL ;"rgf tyf ;~rf/ ;xsf/Ln] Pkm=Pd= k|;f/0fsf] Ohfht kfP/ k|;f/0f z'? u/] . n'DjLgL Pkm=Pd n] @)%^ ;fn df3df / /]l8of] dbgkf]v/fn] @)%^ r}tb]lv cfˆgf] k|;f/0f z'? u/]sf lyP . @)%@ ;fnaf6 Pkm=Pd= sf] btf{ z'? ePkl5 xfn;Dd ^( j6f /]l8of]n] cfˆgf] k|;f/0f z'? ul/;s]sf 5g\ eg] cGo !#^ j6f /]l8of]n] k|;f/0fsf] nflu cg'dlt -nfO;]G;_ lnO;s]sf 5g\ . s0ff{nL c~rndf dfq cfwf bh{g j9L /]l8of]nfO{ ;~rfngsf] cg'dlt k|bfg ul/Psf] 5 . o;/L a9\bf] dfqfdf /x]sf] Pkm=Pd= sf] btf{ tyf :yfkgfn] :yflgo :t/df k|;f/0fsf] 7"nf] ;Defjgf b]vfPsf] 5.

/]l8of]sf] ;Defjgf

/]l8of]sf] a9\bf] k|efjg} jf:tjdf /]l8of]sf] ;Defjgf xf] eGbf s'g} cTo'lQm gxf]nf . ljZjdf /]l8of]sf] jf:jtljs k|efj jf ;Defjgf k|yd tyf låtLo ljZjo'4df b]vf k¥of] . låtLo ljZjo'4df b]lvPsf] /]l8of] propaganda n] /]l8of]sf] ;DefjgfnfO{ phfu/ u¥of] . Toltj]nf hd{g, cd]l/sL, /l;og /]l8of]n] Jofks dfqfdf war propaganda rnfP . To;}u/L ;g\ !(#* cS6'j/df k|;fl/t H.G. Wells sf] gf6s The war of the worlds sf] sf/0f Go'of]s{ / Go"h;L{sf xhf/f} dflg; cflQb} ;8sdf s'bg yfn] . gf6snfO{ jf:tljs 7fGbf wfld{s ;ef, ;8s / ;+rf/ ;+oGq 7Kk x'g k'u]sf] s'/f Go"of]s{ 6fOD;n] #! cS6'j/df k|d'v ;dfrf/sf] ?kdf 5fk]sf] lyof] . oL 36gfn] /]l8of]sf] zlQmsf] ;DefjgfnfO{ phfu/ u/]sf] lyof] .

/]l8of]sf] ;Defjgfsf] s'/f ubf{, ljZjdf /]l8of] gePsf] b]z ;fob} s'g} xf]nf, cd]l/sfsf] VOA (Voice of America), xf]; cyjf lj6]gsf] BBC To;}u/L e'6fgsf] Ps dfq BBC (Bhutan Broadcasting service) xf]; cyjf, g]kfnsf] Radio Nepal ;j}n] k|;f/0fsf] k|ltlglwTj u/]sf 5g\ . tL afx]s klg ljleGg Short ware, Medium wave tyf FM :6]zgsf] :yfkgfn] /]l8of]sf] kx'FrnfO{ u|fld0f tyf b'u{d tx;Dd k'¥ofPsf] 5 . /]l8of]sf] ;Defagfsf] s'/f ubf{ of] dfWod ljsl;t /fi6«df eGbf klg ljsf;lzn / cljsl;t /fi6«df Hofbf pkof]lu 5 . ef]sdl/ / ul/ljsf] rk]6fdf k/]sf] clk|msL dfxfl4k xf]; cyjf cfGtl/s ¢Gbaf6 u|l;t blIf0f Pl;ofsf >Ln+sf jf g]kfn x'g /]l8of]sf] plQs} dxTj 5 . clk|msL dfxfl¢kdf /]l8of]sf] ;Defjgf cGo dfWodsf] t'ngfdf Hofb} pkof]lu 5 . j9\bf] AIDS /f]usf] /f]syfdsf] nflu xf]; cyjf JolQmut z;lQms/0fsf] nflu /]l8of]sf] k|of]u ePsf] 5 . clk|msg dfxfl¢ksf] nflu /]l8of] j/bfg g} xf] ;fd"bflos /]l8of] dfk{mt gof l;kx?, /f]huf/ sfo{qmdx? jf/] hfgsfl/ x'g] x'gfn] cGo dfWodsf] t'ngfdf /]l8of]sf] k|of]u clk|msfdf Aofks 5 . clzlIft tyf sdhf]/ cfly{s l:ylt ePsf] hgtfsf] jfx'Notf ePsf] sf/0fn] ubf{ klg clk|msfdf /]l8of]sf] ;DefjgfnfO{ gsfg{ ;lsGg .

lj;f} ztfAbLdf ljsf; ePsf] Internet sf] sf/0f af6 klg /]l8of]sf] ;Defjgf Jofks ePsf] 5 . /]l8of] sfo{qmdnfO{ ;+;f/sf] s'g}klg s'gfaf6 cfkm"n] rfx]sf] ;dodf ;'Gg ;lsg] ePsf]n] ubf{ /]l8of]sf] ;DefagfnfO{ Internet n] a9fPsf] xf] . Global Radio afx]s National tyf Local /]l8of] cfkgf] e" If]qaflx/ rfx]sf] ;dodf ;'Gg ;lsg' kl5Nnf] ljsf;qmdsf] k|ltkmn xf] h;n] ubf{ ljsl;t tyf cljsl;t d'"n'ssf /]l8of]sf] kx'r ljZjJoflk ePsf] 5 . ;fy} ljb]zdf /x]klg cfˆg} /fli6«o /]l8of] ;'GGf ;lsg] ePsf] 5 . lj=lj=l;= ljZj ;]jf dfq xf]Og /]l8of] clk|msf, /]l8of] g]kfn, /]l8of] ;u/dfyf h:tf /]l8of]x? Internet dfkm{t ;+;f/sf] h'g;'s} s'gfdf ;'Gg ;lsG5 h'g Internet n] ubf{ ;Dea ePsf] xf] .

g]kfndf /]l8of]sf] ;Defjgf

h;/L ljZjdf /]l8of]sf] cfjZostf tyf ;Defjgf /x]sf] 5, g]kfndf klg /]l8of]sf] cfjZostf / ;Defjgf Jofks dfqfdf kfOG5 . w]/} hgtfsf] a;f]jf; u|fld0f txdf x'g', sdhf]/ qmd zlQm, lzIff tyf r]tgfsf] cefj sl7g e'–agf]6, km/s ;d"bfo tyf ;+:s[ltsf JolQmx?sf] pkl:ylt cflb sf/0fn] g]kfndf /]l8of]sf] cfjZostf / ;DefjgfnfO{ Jofks agfPsf] 5 . To;}n] /fli6«o e'–agf]6nfO{ glhsaf6 ;d]6\g] p2]Zon] g]kfndf F.M. /]l8of]sf] z'?jft ePsf] xf] .

y/L y/Lsf /]l8of] y/L y/Lsf sfo{qmd

/]l8of] k|;f/0fx? ljleGg k|sf/sf x'G5g\ . ;j} /]l8of]n] Ps} vfnsf s'/fx? ub}gg\ ;j}n] Ps} vfnsf ;fdfu|L lbg] xf] eg], w]/} /]l8of] :6]zg vf]Ng'sf] cy{ s] /x\of] / To;}n] x/]s k|sf/sf /]l8of] k|;f/0fsf] cf–cfˆg} k|sf/sf] nIo, p2]Zo / k|fyldstfx? 5g\ . h;sf] cleJolQm pgLx?n] k|;f/0f ug]{ sfo{qmdsf] ljifoj:t', k|:t'lt / z}nLdfkm{t ePsf] x'G5 .

/]l8of] k|;f/0fnfO{ ;fwf/0ftyf ltg k|sf/df jlu{s/0f ug{ ;lsG5 .

!= ;fj{hlgs /]l8of]

;fdfGotM /fHo jf /fHolgolGqt lgsfo4f/f ;+rflnt /]l8of] ;fj{hlgs /]l8of] xf] , o;sf] p2]Zo gful/s / ;dfhsf lxtsf nflu sfo{qmd k|;f/0f ug'{ xf] . o:tf] k|;f/0f k|foM /fli6«o tyf cGt/fli6«o :t/df x'G5 . /]l8of] g]kfn, cn OlGbof /]l8of], BBC, VOA nfO{ o; >]0fLdf /flvG5 . of] dfwodaf6 d"ntM ;/sf/L ;"rgf hfgsf/L, k|:t't ul/G5 eg] /fli6«o dxTjsf ;fdfu|Lx?, ;/sf/ -/fHo_ / hgtfsf] jLrdf /x]/ k'nsf] sfd of] dfWodn] ub{5 .

/fi6« k|d'v ;/sf/ k|d'vsf ;Gb];x?, 3f]if0ffx? of] dfWoddfkm{t k|:t't x'G5 . of] dfWod0af6 k|;f/0f ePkl5 s'g} klg s'/f cflwsfl/s ePsf] dflgG5 . /]l8of] g]kfnsf] ;gbe{df s'/f ug]{ xf] eg] o;sf cfˆg} ;Defjgf / r'gf}tL /x]sf 5g\ .

@= lghL Jofkfl/s /]l8of]

JolQm jf Jofkfl/s k|lti7fgn] rnfpFg} /]l8of] Jofkfl/s /]l8of] xf] . o:tf /]l8of]df lj1fkg / k|of]lht sfo{qmd k|;f/0f u/]/ gfkmf sfdpFg] p2]Zo /flvPsf] x'G5 . g]kfnsf] ;Gbe{df lghL If]qdf Pkm=Pd= /]l8of] :6]zg ;~rfng ug]{ cg'dlt lbgyfn]kl5 v'n]sf clwsf+z /]l8of] k|;f/0f h:tf] sflGtk'/ Pkm=Pd= Hits FM, s] P l6 Pr, sf]zL Pkm=Pd= lghL Jofkfl/s /]l8of] :6]zg x'g\ . oL dfWodaf6 dgf]/~hgfTds sfo{qmd j9L dfqfdf k|;f/0f ul/G5g eg] lzIff, ;"rgfTds sfo{qmd klg k|;f/0f x'g] u/]sf 5g\ . /]l8of]df ax'nafbsf] l;4fGt cg'?k Ps} :yfgaf6 w]/} Jofkfl/s /]l8of] ;+rfng ePklg ;|f]tfnfO{ 5gf}6 (Choice) sf] df}sf k|bfg u/]sf 5g\ .

#_ ;fd'bflos /]l8of]

;d'bfosf dflg;x?n] s'g} ;+ul7t ;d"x, lgsfo / ;+3;+:yfsf dfWodaf6 rnfpFg] /]l8of] ;fd"bflos /]l8of] xf] . of] gfkmfd'vL x'b}g o;n] ;DalGwt ;d"bfosf jfl;Gbfsf] lxt / enfOsf nflu sfo{qmdx? k|;f/0f ug]{ ub{5 . sf7df8f}+sf] /]l8of] ;u/dfyf, d]6«f] Pkm=Pd= a'6jnsf] n'lDagL, kfNkfsf] dbg kf]v/f, bfËsf] :ju{4f/L Pkm=Pd=nfO{ ;fd"bflos /]l8of]sf] ?kdf lng ;lsG5 . ;fd'bflos /]l8of]n] Jofkfl/s /]l8of]n] h:tf] gfkmf sdfP/ wgL x'g] p2]Zo /fv]sf] x'Fb}g .

sfo{qmd

km/s–km/s /]l8of] ePklg tL /]l8of]n] d"ntM ;"rgf lzIff / dgf]/~hgfTds ;fdfu|L k|;f/0f ug]{ ub{5g . km/s olt dfq xf] sL] s'g} dfWodn] dgf]/~hgfTds ;fdfu|L j9L dfqfdf k|:t't ug]{ u/]sf 5g\ eGg] cGo dfWodn] ;"rgf tyf hfgsf/L d"ns sfo{qmd j9L dfqfdf k|;f/0f u5{g\ . g]kfnsf] ;Gbe{df x]bf{ /]l8of] g]kfnn] ^) k|ltzt eGbf j9L ;do dgf]/~hgfTds sfo{qmd @% k|ltzt hlt ;do lzIff tyf ljsf;d"ns ;fdfu|L nfO{ lbPsf] kfOG5 . -b'uf{gfy zdf{_ csf]{tkm{ Pkm=Pd= /]l8of]n] cfˆgf] ;Dk"0f{ ;dosf] w]/}h;f] efu dgf]/~hgfTds ;fdfu|LnfO{ lbg] u/]sf 5g\ . rfx] sf7df8f}sf] Pkm=Pd= xf]; cyjf df]km;nsf Pkm=Pd= ltgLx?n] d"nt ;f+lults sfo{qmd / dgf]/~hgfTds sfo{qmd j9L dfqfdf k|;f/0f ug]{ u/]sf 5g\ .

sfo{qmd km/\Dof6

s'g /]l8of]n] s:tf] sfo{qmd lgdf{0f ug]{ eGg] s'/f To;sf ;|f]tf tyf ;d"bfodf e/ kg]{ u/]sf] 5 . /fhwfgL sf clwsf+z /]l8of]n] ljxfgsf] ;dodf cvjf/ ;DalGw sfo{qmd cyf{t cvjf/df 5flkPsf ;fdfu|L k95g\ eg] lbpF;f]sf] ;dodf dgf]/~hg / ;dfrf/ d"ns sfo{qmd k|:t't ug]{ u/]sf] 5g\ . To;}u/L df]kms;nsf /]l8of]n] klg cfjZostf cg';f/ /fli6«o tyf :yflgo ;dfrf/ k|;f/0f ug]{, u/]sf 5g\ eg] cGo ;dodf km/s–km/s sfo{qmd rnfPsf 5g\ . ;f]n' Pkm=Pd af6 v]tfnf rflxPsf] ;"rgf k|;f/0f x'g] u/]sf], O6x/Lsf] ;Kt sf]zL Pkm=Pd n] dfG5] d/]sf]df cfkmGtnfO{ dnfdL hfg af]nfPsf] ;"rgf xf]; cyfjf Pkm=Pd af6} k9fpFg] / Pkm=Pd af6} ;DalGwt If]qsf] l/hN6 eGg] u/]sf] kfOof] . o;/L ;|f]tfsf] dglhTg oL /]l8of]n] ;s];Dd :yflgo hgtfsf] cfjZostfsf ;fdfu|fL k|;f/0f ug]{ u/]sf kfOof] . /]l8of] kfn'Ën] sf7df8f}sf] t/sf/Lsf] efp eGg,' s]–s:tf jLp ljhg, dnvfb k|of]u ug]{ ;"rgf lbg'n] Pkm=Pd=/]l8of]sf] cfudg u|fld0f ;d'bfotkm{ s]lGb|t ePsf] kfOG5 . efiffut ?kdf x]g'{kbf{ sf7df8f}+ sf clwsf+z Pkm=Pd= n] g]jf/L efiffsf] nflu s]xL ;do pknAw u/fPsf 5g\ eg] g]kfnu~hsf] Pkm=Pd=n] yf? efiffdf, hgsk'/sf] Pkm=Pd=n] d}ynL efiffdf klg sfo{qmd tof/ kfg]{ u/]sf 5g\ . o;/L km/s efiff ljljw sfo{qmd Format, km/s–km/s ;d"bfosf] rfxgf cflbn] ubf{ /]l8of]sf] ;Defjgf Hofbf a9]sf] 5 . Denis McQuail n] eg]h:tf] nlrnf] tyf ;:tf] sfo{qmd pTkfbg, k|of]u ug{ ;lhnf], ljljw ;fdfu|Lsf] k|;f/0f, ;fk]If :jtGqtf, JolQmut k|of]u, ;xeflutfd"ns dfWod ePsf]n] ubf{ /]l8of]sf] ;Defjgf k|r'/dfqfdf b]vfk/]sf] 5 . cem k|ofKt ;do, ljljw WjgL ;+oGq, w]/} JolQmsf] :j/ /fVg ;lsg] ePsf]n] klg o;sf] ;Defagf cGo dfWodsf] t'ngfdf Jofks 5 .

r'gf}tL

h;/L /]l8of]df ;Defjgf b]vf k/] To;}u/L o;df r'gf}tL klg Jofks dfqfdf b]vfkbf]{ 5 . Mc. Luhan n] eg] h:tf] Cool media sf] ?kdf /x]sf] Radio n] xfn k|ToIf ?kdf Television ;Fu k|ltZkwf{ ug'{k/]sf] 5 / /]l8of]nfO{ k|fKt x'g] lj1fkgsf] 7"nf] lx:;f 6]lnlehg lt/ ;/]sf] 5 . /]l8of]n] d"nt oL % If]qdf 7"nf] r'gf}tL a]xf]g'{ k/]sf] 5 .

!= cfly{s r'gf}tL

6]lnlehgsf] cfudgn] /]l8of]sf] cfDbfgLdf 7"nf] c;/ kf/]sf] 5, lj1fkgsf] 7"nf] lx:;f 6]lnlehg, Internet tyf kqklqsf lt/ nfu]sf] 5 . eg] ;fgf] lx:;fdfq /]l8of]nfO{ k|fKt 5 . cd]l/sfsf] lj1fkgsf] !)Ü dfq /]l8of]nfO{ k|fKt 5 . To;}u/L hfkfgdf lj1fkgsf] %Ü hd{gL / blIf0f sf]l/ofdf #Ü lj1fkg /]l8of]nfO{ hfG5, To:t} yf]/} cfDbfgLdf /x]/ sfo{qmd tof/ kfg'{, k|fljlws tyf cGo sd{rf/L kfNg'kg]{ 7"nf] r'gf}tL o;sf] /x]sf] 5 .

@= k|fljlws r'gf}tL

;do kl/l:ylt cg';f/ km/s–km/s k|ljlwsf] ljsf; eO/x]sf] / cfjZostf cg';f/ tL k|ljlwnfO{ cufNg'kg]{ jfWotf /]l8of]df /x]sf] 5 . h'g cfly{s cefjdf c;Dej dfq 5 , olb ;do / kl/l:ylt cg';f/ k|ljlwnfO{ cfTd;fy ug{ g;lsPdf kl5 kg]{ kSsf 5 , o;/L ;do cg';f/ k|ljlw kl/jt{g ug'{kg]{ bf];|f] 7"nf] r'gf}tL /]l8of]df b]vfkb}{5 .

#= hgzlQmsf] r'gf}tL

w]/} s'/fdf /]l8of] / 6]lnlehgdf ;dfgtf x'bf /]l8of]df sfd l;s]/ 6]lnlehgdf hfg] hgzlQmsf] dfqf a9\bf] 5, . h;n] ubf{ /]l8of]nfO{ 6]lnlehgdf k|j]zsf] dfWodsf] ?kdf lnOg] ,hgzlQmn] ubf{ cfgfjZos vr{ a9\g hfg] ;Defjgf 5, h;nfO{ /f]Sg'kg]{ r'gf}tL /]l8of] ;fd" b]vf k/]sf] 5 .

$= ;fdfu|L ;Fu ;DalGwt r'gf}tL

km/s kl/j]z, jftfj/0f tyf kl/l:ylt cg';f/ km/s–km/s sfo{qmd tof/ kfg'{kg]{ cGoyf k|ltikwf{df kl5 kl/g] sf/0fn] ubf{ sfo{qmd ;fdfu|L;Fu ;DaGwLt r'gf}tL kl5Nnf] ;dodf b]vf k/]sf] 5 . cem 6]lnlehg;Fusf] k|ltikwf{n] ubf{ 5f]6f] ;dodf g} :tl/o ;fdfu|L k|:t't ug'{kg]{ x'gfn] sfo{qmd ;fdfu|L ;DaGwL r'gf}tL jt{dfgdf Jofks dfqfdf b]vf k/]sf] 5 .

% /fhgLlts r'gf}tL

j]nfj]nfdf x'g] u/]sf /fhlglts kl/jt{g / cfGbf]ngsf] k|d'v lzsf/ /]l8of] x'g] u/]sf] 5 . h;l/ bf];|f] ljZjo'bdf propaganda ;fWg] sfdsf] nflu /]l8of]sf] k|of]u ul/osf] lyof] cfh PSsfO;f} ztfAbL df cfOk'Ubf /]l8of]n] k|tIf, ck|tIf ?kaf6 zf;s au{ tyf ljb|f]lxaf6 r'gf}lt Joxf]g'{ k/]sf] 5 cem g]kfnh:tf] ljsf;lzn /fi6«df zf;sju{sf] klxnf] gh/g} /]l8of]dfly kg]{ u/]sf] 5 . h;sf] pbf/x0f g]kfndf /fhfsf] k|tIf zf;gsf] z'?jft ;u} g]kfnL Pkm Pd /]l8of]n] 7"nf] ;f:tL Aoxf]g'{ k/]sf] lyof] .

lgisif{

cGTodf eGg'kbf{ cfly{s ?kdf ;:tf], af]Sgdf ;lhnf], s'g} lzIffsf] cfjZostf gkg]{, Ps 7fpFdf jl;/xg' gkg]{, Interactive media ePsf] sf/0fn] ubf{ /]l8of]sf] ;Defjgf cGo dfWodsf] t'ngfdf Jofks 5 . cem g]kfn h:tf] ax'efifL, ax'hftL, 7"nf] ;+Vofdf clzlIft, u|fld0f tyf sl7g ef}uf]lns agf]6 ePsf] b]zdf /]l8of]sf] ;DefjgfnfO{ gsfg{ ;lsGg oBlk ;fdflhs d"No / dfGotfsf] jLrdf /x]/ /]l8of] ;Grfng ug'{k/]sf] xf]; / lgisif{df kL=v/]nn] eGg' eP h:t} g]kfndf ax'njfb, ljljwtf Joj;flostf / ;fdflhs pQ/bfloTj /]l8of]sf] ;Defjgf / r'gf}tL] b'j} ?kdf /x]sf] 5 .

References

1) sf]O/fnf,cRr'tafa' @)^), ljZj Oltxf;, sf7df08f} h]=s]=hL= a'S; P08 :6];g/L

2) /fO{ nfn b]p;f, Class note, Pd= P k|yd jif{ @)^#, /Tg /fHo nIdL SofDk;, k|bz{gLdfu{

3) /]l8of] g]kfn web site - www.radionepal.org

4) /]l8of] k|hftfGqLs/0f ;Defjgf / r'gf}tL—sfo{kq, Humanities and Social Science Journal k]h g=!@#—!#)

5) zdf{ b'uf{gfy,;Dkfbs @)%$, k|;f/0f k|qsfl/tf xft] lstfj, sf7df08f}, g]kfn k|]; OlG:6Ro"6

6) ;"rgf tyf ;+rf/ dGqfno web site:- www.mic.gov.np

7) Gunaratna, Shelton A.2002.Hand Book of the Media in Asia, New Delhi: Sage Publication.

8) http://allafrica.com/stories

9) Kharel P.2005, Sounds of Radio Broadcasting. Kathmandu: Nepal Association of Media Educators

10)McQuail, Denis.2005.Mass Communication Theory.New Delhi: Vistaar Publication.

11)Thussu, Daya Kishan.2000.International Communication continuity and Change.New York: Arnold,amember of the hodder Headline Group

/fhwfgLsf PkmPdaf6 k|;fl/t ;d;fdlos ljifoj:t'df cfwfl/t sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsfl/tf

hgtfsf] 7'nf] lx:;f;Dd cfkm\gf] k|efj / kx'Fr /fVg ;kmn /]l8of] k|;f/0fsf] Jofkstf kl5Nnf] ;do x\jfQ} a9]sf] 5 . @)$^ ;fnsf] /fhgLlts kl/jt{gkl5 g]kfndf /]l8of] k|;f/0fn] ;fFRr} km/flsnf] x'g] df}sf kfof] . /fli6«o k|;f/0f cGtu{tsf] /]l8of] g]kfnsf] Psflwsf/ tf]l8of] . /]l8of] k|;f/0fsf] If]qdf gofF o'u g} ;'? eof] eGbf km/s kb}{g . blIf0f Plzofdf g]kfnsf] PkmPd÷/]l8of] ljsf;qmdnfO{ nf]enfUbf] dflgG5 . ;'?df /]l8of] g]kfnsf] ;dfrf/df cfwfl/t /x]/ ;f]xL jf To:t} ;dfrf/ dfq k|;f/0f ug]{ PkmPdx? la:tf/} ;dfrf/ k|;f/0fdf t lgs} cl3 a9] g} . ;+u;+u} ;dfrf/d'ns / ;d;fdlos ljifoj:t'df cfwfl/t sfo{qmd k|;f/0fdf klg lgs} nf]enfUbf] t/Lsfn] cufl8 cfP .

hgdt lgdf{0fdf ;xof]uL

;d;fdlos ljifoj:t'df cfwfl/t PkmPd sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsfl/tfaf/] hgcfGbf]ng–@ sf] !( lbgsf] cjlwnfO{ gd'gfsf] ?kdf lng ;lsG5 . To; cjlwdf PkmPdaf6 k|;f/0f ePsf ;d;fdlos k|:t'ltx?sf] k|efjsfl/tf Hofb} g} /x]sf] lyof] . cfGbf]ng ttfpg To; k|sf/sf sfo{qmdx?n] 7'n} of]ubfg k'/\ofPsf lyP . To;kl5 / To;cl3 klg To:tf vfnsf sfo{qmdx?sf] cfkm\g} dxTj 5 .

;d;fdlos ljifodf cfwfl/t sfo{qmdsf] ljz]iftf s] xf] eg] logLx?n] hfgsf/L dfq k|bfg ub}{gg\, ;fydf hgdt ;d]t lgdf{0f ub{5g\ . ;s];Dd ;du| sf]0faf6 lglZrt ljifodf sfo{qmd tof/ kfl/g] x'Fbf >f]tf ;DalGwt ljifo jf 36gfsf af/]df w]/} eGbf w]/} hfgsf/ x'g kfpFb5g\ .

@)$^ ;fnsf] hgcfGbf]ngsf] ;kmntfkZrft k|hftGq k'g:yfkgf dfq ePg k]|;d}qL ;+:s[ltsf] klg ljsf; eof] . To;}sf] hudf pNn]Vo ?kdf dfqfTds / s]xL ?kdf u'0ffTds km8\sf] df/\of] g]kfnL cfd;+rf/ If]qn] . /]l8of] k|;f/0fdf klg ;f]xL cg'?ksf] ljsf; eof] . vf;u/L PkmPd k|;f/0fsf] t nf]enfUbf] ;'?jft eof] . clxn] t of] qmdn] o:tf] Jofkstf / pRrtf kfPsf] 5 h;n] ;du| ;dfhnfO{ ;';'lrt t u/]sf] 5 g}, dfu{lgb]{z ;d]t u/]sf] 5 .

k|f/De / k|sf/

k|hftGq k'g:yfkgfsf] k|f/Detfsf g} /]l8of] g]kfnaf6 x/]s ;feFm 36gf / ljrf/ gfdsf] sfo{qmd ;'? eof] . Tof] sfo{qmdn] dgf]/~hg, :t'lt, elQmufg / sf]/f ;dfrf/df cEo:t /]l8of] k|;f/0f k/Dk/fnfO{ uHhas} wSsf lbof] . /fhgLlt / cGo ;d;fdlos 36gf / ljifoj:t'nfO{ klg ;fFRr} /f]rs kf/fn] k|:t't ug{ ;lsG5 eGg] k|df0f xf] Tof] sfo{qmd . Tof] Ps k|sf/n] sf]z]9'+uf g} lyof] ;d;fdlos ljifoj:t'df cfwfl/t /]l8of] sfo{qmdsf] If]qdf .

PkmPd k|;f/0f ;'? ePkl5sf k|f/lDes ;do;Dd 36gf / ljrf/ h:tf sfo{qmdx? k|;f/0f ePgg\ . t/ kl5 To:t} vfnsf sfo{qmdx? k|;f/0f x'g yfn] . cGt{jftf{df cfwfl/t ;d;fdlos ljifosf sfo{qmdx?sf] To;kl5 t af9L g} cfof] eGbf km/s kb}{g . ;'?df ljhos'df/ kf08]n] k|fOd 6fOd ljy ljhos'df/ gfdsf] cGt{jftf{df cfwfl/t ;d;fdlos ljifosf] sfo{qmd sflGtk'/ PkmPdaf6 k|;f/0f ;'? u/] . To;tfsf cGt{jftf{df cfwfl/t eP/ To:tf] vfnsf] sfo{qmd k|f/De geO;s]sf] atfpF5g, ;+rfns kf08] . pgsf] Tof] sfo{qmd clxn] aGb eO;s]sf] 5 .

a]nfotdf pTkfbg x'g] / ToxL+af6 k|;f/0f x'g] aLaL;L g]kfnL ;]jf /]l8of] ;u/dfyfaf6 k|;f/0f x'g yfn]kl5 ;dfrfl/o ljZn]if0f / yk hfgsf/Lx? /fhwfgLsf ;|f]tfnfO{ ;xh eof] . aLaL;L g]kfnL ;]jf /]l8of] ;u/dfyfdfkm{t /fhwfgLsf ;|f]tf dfem ;xh ?kdf k|;fl/t eof] . /, of] qmd clxn] klg hf/L 5 . /]l8of] ;u/dfyfaf6} cfhsf s'/f gfds ;d;fdlos ljifoj:t'df cfwfl/t sfo{qmd klg k|;f/0f eO/x]sf] 5 . To:t} sflGtk'/ PkmPdaf6 b x]8nfOg/ gfdsf] To:t} vfnsf] sfo{qmd k|;f/0f eO/x]sf] 5 .

/]l8of] PraL;Laf6 v'nfd~r gfdsf] To:t} sfo{qmd k|;f/0f eO/x]sf] 5 . To:t} pHofnf] PkmPddf ablnbf] g]kfn / g]kfn rf}tf/L k|;f/0f eO/x]sf] 5 . g]kfn rf}tf/L /]l8of] l;6Laf6 klg k|;f/0f eO/x]sf] 5 . of] sfo{qmd PlG6gf kmfpG8];g g]kfnn] pTkfbg ug]{ ub{5 . uf]vf{ PkmPdaf6 k|;f/0f x'g] km|G6 k]h / qm; r]s klg ;d;fdlos ljifoj:t'df cfwfl/t /]l8of] sfo{qmd xf] . /fhwfgLsf cGo PkmPdx?df klg To; k|sf/sf] sfo{qmd k|;f/0f x'g] u/]sf] 5 . /fhwfgLsf PkmPdaf6 k|;fl/t ;d;fdlos ljifoj:t'df cfwfl/t s]xL sfo{qmdx?M

sflGtk'/ PkmPd– b x]8nfOg/

/]l8of] ;u/dfyf– cfhsf s'/f

g]kfn PkmPd– ;do ;Gbe{

uf]vf{ PkmPd– k|mG6 k]h / qm; r]s

/]l8of] PrjL;L– v'nfd~r

pHofnf] PkmPd– ablnbf]+ g]kfn .

cGTodf

d'nt /fhgLlts ljifo jf 36gfdf cfwfl/t eP/ o:tf vfnsf sfo{qmdx? pTkfbg / k|;f/0f x'g] u/]sf] kfOG5 . o:tf sfo{qmdx? hgtfdfem nf]slk|o /x]sf] kfOG5 . nf]slk|o /x]sf] k'i6L x'g] sf/0fx? klg 5g\ . tL x'g\– o:tf sfo{qmdx? lgoldt jf b}lgs ?kdf k|;f/0f x'g', sfo{qmd cjlwdf lj1fkg d'No dx+uf] x'g', ;|f]tf ;j]{If0fdf tL sfo{qmdx? nf]slk|o x'g' cflb .

;d;fdlos ljifoj:t'df cfwfl/t /]l8of] sfo{qmdx?n] ;|f]tfsf] r]tgf / dgf]lj1fgnfO{ k|efj kf5{ eGg]df s'g} ;Gb]x 5}g . To;af6 ljrf/ lgdf{0fsf] nx/ g} rN5 eGg ;lsG5 . tfhf 36gf, ljifo jf ;Gbe{sf af/]df tTsfn} ljZn]if0f kl:sg ;Sg' To:tf k|s[ltsf sfo{qmdx?sf] ljz]iftf g} xf] . oBlk tL slt lgikIf, ljZj;gLo / tYodf cfwfl/t x'G5g eGg] s'/f ax;sf] csf]{ ljifo x'g;S5 . w/}h;f] To:tf sfo{qmdx? 6]lnkmf]g–jftf{df cfwfl/t x'g] u/]sf] kfOG5 . k|ToIf 6]lnkmf]gdfkm{t jf :6'l8of]d} cGt{jftf{ lnP/ sfo{qmdnfO{ ljZj;gLo agfpg] k|of; u/]sf] kfOG5 . ;dfrf/sf] hudf pleP/ ljrf/ / 36gfqmdnfO{ 5n{u agfpg] k|of; ub}{ ;|f]tfnfO{ ;r]t kfg]{ p4]Zo o:tf sfo{qmdx?n] /fv]sf x'G5g\ .

;Gbe{ ;dfu|L

/fhwfgLaf6 k|;f/0f x'g] ljleGg PkmPd / sfo{qmdx?

k'?iff]Qd bfxfn, dfgj clwsf/ tyf zflGt ;dfh

s]xL ;|f]tfx? .

PkmPd /]l8of]sf] lj:tf/

k|f/De

lj=;+ @)%$ h]7df g]kfn jftfj/0f kqsf/ ;d"xn] lghL If]qaf6 /]l8of] ;~rfngsf] cg'dlt kfPkl5 ;'? ePsf] PkmPkm /]l8of] ;~rfng ug{] df]xn] oltv]/ d'n'ssf ;a} c~rnx?nfO{ ;d]l6;s]sf] 5 . lj;+ @)%$ kl5 hgcfGbf]ng–@ cl3;Ddsf] cjlwdf d'n'se/ %^ j6f PkmPd /]l8of]n] k|;f/0fsf] cg'dlt lnPsf lyP eg] cfGbf]ngkl5 k|;f/0fsf] cg'dlt lng]sf] ;+Vof b'O{ ;o % k'lu;s]sf] 5 . ;fpgsf] klxnf] ;ftf;Dd nfO;]G; lng] PkmPdsf] ;+Vof b'O{ ;o !^ k'u]sf] a|f]8sfl:6ª P;f]l;Pg ckm g]kfnn] atfPsf] 5 . xfn;Dd t]x|y'd, /f}tx6, /;'jf, g'jfsf]6, dgfª, DofUbL, 8f]Nkf, 88]nw'/f tyf a}t8L lhNnfdf PkmPd /]l8of] ;~rfngsf nflu cg'dlt vf]Hg]x? gb]lvPsf ;~rf/ dGqfnon] hgfPsf] 5 .

nf]stflGqs cfGbf]ng ;kmntfkl5 ag]sf] ;ft bnsf] ;/sf/n] @)^# ;fpg clGtddf PkmPd /]l8of] / 6]lnlehg vf]Ng :jLs[lt lbg] lg0f{o u/]otf olt w]/} ;+Vofdf PkmPd /]l8of] k|;f/0f cg'dlt hf/L ePsf] xf] . /fhfsf] k|ToIf zf;gdf k|ltalGwt h:t} ePsf] PkmPd /]l8of]sf nflu k|;f/0f cg'dlt lbg] k|lqmofnfO{ nf]stflGqs ;/sf/n] ;xh kfl/lbP kl5 ;"rgf tyf ;~rf/ dGqfnosf] >Jo b[Zo k|;f/0f zfvfdf zfvfdf PkmPd /]l8of] tyf 6]lnlehg k|;f/0fsf nflu cg'dlt lng cfj]bg lbg]sf] lbgx'F+ h;f] g} eL8 nfUg] u/]sf] 5 . :jtGq /]l8of]sf] If]qdf blIf0f Plzofd} cufl8 g]kfnL ;dfhsf nflu ;/sf/sf] of] lg0f{on] nf]stflGqs cfGbf]ngdf bnx?;F+u} xft]dfnf] ub{} cfPsf ;+rf/If]qdf lqmoflzn ;d"xdfem ;'vb\ If0f NofOlbPsf] 5 . 5f]6} cjlwdf olt w]/} ;+Vofdf PkmPd btf{ a9\g'nfO{ ;'vb cfZro{sf ?kdf lng'kg{] ts{ u5{g g]kfn kqsf/ dxf;+3sf cWoIf lji0f' lgi7'/L . nf]stGq :yfkgfkl5 dGqfno:t/sf] lg0f{oaf6 :6f/ PkmPd sf7df8f}+n] ;fpg @*, @)^# df Ohfht kfPkl5 k|;f/0fsf] nfO;]G; lng Ps lsl;dn] af9L g} cfPsf] lyof] . ;+rf/ dGqfnon] cem} w]/} nfO;]G; kfpg] kfOknfOgdf /x]sf atfPsf] 5 .

nfO;]G;sf nflu /]l8of] ;u/dfyfn] to u/]sf] sl7g af6f]

lj;+ @)$^ ;fnsf] /fhgLlts kl/jt{gkl5 ag]sf] g]kfn clw/fHosf] ;+ljwfg, @)$& n] jfs tyf cleJolQm :jtGqtf k|bfg u/] nuQ} d'n'sdf ;~rf/ If]qn] pBf]usf] ?kdf ljsf; x'g] hds{] u/]sf] b]lvPsf] 5 . ;+ljwfgd} hgtfn] ;"rgf kfpg] clwsf/sf] Joj:yf u/]kl5 jftfj/0f, ljsf; kqsfl/tf tyf dfgjclwsf/sf If]qdf lqmoflzn kqsf/x?n] :yfkgf u/]sf] g]kfn jftfj/0f kqsf/ ;d"xn] :jtGq /]l8of] :yfkgf ug{ cleofg ;'? u/]sf] lyof] . ;d"xsf] of] cleofgnfO{ d'n'sn] agfPsf] /fli6«o k|;f/0f gLlt @)$*, /fli6«o k|;f/0f gLlt @)$( n] yk phf{ k|bfg ul/lbPsf] lyof] . log} gLltx?nfO{ cfwf/ dfg]/ g]kfn jftfj/0f kqsf/ ;d"xn] :jtGq /]l8of] ;~rfngsf nflu kxn u/]sf] eP klg ;d"xn] k|;f/0f cg'dlt k|fKt ug{ cfj]bg lbP kl5 ;f9] rf/ jif{sf] ;+3if{ ug'{ k/]sf] lyof] . cl:y/ /fhgLlts jftf/0f, k/Dk/fut ;f]rsf /fhgLltsdL{ Pj+ sd{rf/LtGq tyf ;/sf/ lgoGqLt /]l8of] g]kfnsf] Psflwsf/ tf]8\g grfxg] /]l8of]sdL{x?sf] sf/0f ;d"xn] ;+3if{sf] af6f]to ug'{k/]sf] lyof] . ;g\ !((@ sf] cS6f]a/df jftfj/0f kqsf/ ;d"xn] :jtGq /]l8of] k|;f/0fsf nflu cg'dlt lng ;"rgf tyf ;~rf/ dGqfnodf klxnf] k6s cfj]bg lbPsf] lyof] t/ Tof] d] !((& df cfP/df dfq} sfof{Gjogdf cfpg ;s]sf] lyof] . of] cjlwdf ;d"xsf kbflwsf/Lx?n] rf/ rf/j6f ;/sf/, rf/ rf/ hgf dGqL tyf rf/} hgf ;+rf/ ;lrjx?n] v]n]sf] e"ldsf cg'ej ug{ afWo agfOPsf lyP .

PkmPkm 6fj/sf] lj:tf/

/fhwfgL / k|d'v ;x/ s]lGb|t PkmPdsf 6fj/ b'u{d lhNnf / ufFpdf b]lvg' ;"rgf qmflGtsf] gofF ?k xf] . ljs]Gb|Lt PkmPd /]l8of]n] y'k|} ;"rgfsf el/of hGdfO/x]sf] 5 . s]xL cl3;Dd /fhwfgLdf lqmofzLn kqsf/x? PkmPd 6fj/ lnP/ ufpF 7fpF kms{g] qmddf lg/Gt/ cfO/x]sf] 5 . kqsf/ dxf;+3sf cWoIf lgi0f'/L eG5g–ljs]Gb|Lt ;+3Lo /fHo k|0ffnLsf] vfsf PkmPdn] sf]/]sf] 5 . /fhwfgL s]lGb|t ;~rf/ dfWodn] ufpF ufpFsf ;"rgf kof{Kt k|;f/0f, k|sfzg ug{ ;s]sf lyPgg\, ;Qm}gg\ klg . :yfgLo cfjfhnfO{ log} PkmPkmn] a'nGb kf/]sf] cg'ej ;+ufn]sf 5g a|f]8sfl:6ª P;f]l;P;g ckm g]kfnsf dxf;lrj lji0f'xl/ 9sfnn] .

d'n'ssf !$ j6} c~rnx?df PkmPkm k|;f/0fsf nflu nfO;]G; lng]x? k'lu;s]sf 5g\ . c~rnut lx;fadf d]rLdf (, sf]zLdf !!, hgsk'/df !!, ;u/dfyfdf &, gf/fo0Ldf @$, afuldtdf #*, u08sL !^, n'lDagL !*, wf}nflu/L *, e]/L !#, ;]tL !!, /flKt !@, s0ff{nL * tyf dxfsfnL c~rndf # j6f PkmPkm k|;f/0fsf nflu nfO;]G; ljt/0f eO;s]sf] 5 .

lhNnfut lx;fjaf6 x]g{] xf] eg] tfKn]h'ªdf !, kfFry/df !, emfkfdf %, Onfddf #, ;+v'jf;efdf !, ef]hk'/df @, wgs'6fdf !, ;'g;/Ldf #, df]/ªdf $, pbok'/df !, ;f]n'v'Da'df !, vf]6fªdf @, l;/fxfdf @, cf]vn9'ªufdf @, wg'iffdf &, l;Gw'nLdf !, dxf]Q/Ldf !, bf]nvf @, ;nf{xL !, af/f !, k;f{ !), lrtjg ^, /f}tx6 !, dsjfgk'/ &, l;Gw'kfNrf]s !, sfe|], @ sf7df8f}+ @*, eQmk'/ @, nlntk'/ % tyf wflbª lhNnfdf # j6f PkmPkmn] k|;f/0fsf] cg'dlt lnPsf 5g\ .

o;}u/L ndh'ª lhNnfdf @, tgx'Fdf @, :ofªhfdf !, sf:sLdf (, uf]vf{df @, gjnk/f;L !, ?kGb]xL (, c3f{vfFrL !, u'NdL !, slkna:t' !, kfNkf ^, d':tfª !, afun'ª ^, kj{t !, afFs] *, alb{of !, ;'v{]t #, b}n]v !, hfh/sf]6 @, bfª %, ;Nofg #, Ko"7fg @, ?s'd @, /f]Nkf !, x'Dnf @, h'Dnf !, sflnsf]6 @, d'u' #, 8f]Nkf !, s+rgk'/ #, 88]nw'/f !, bfr'{nf !, aemfª @, afh'/f !, 8f]6L !, c5fd ! tyf s}nfnL lhNnfdf ^ j6f PkmPdn] k|;f/0fsf] cg'dlt kfPsf 5g\ .

ufpF+df cem} PkmPkm k'u]gg

Ps lhNnf Ps PkmPkm /]l8of]sf cjwf/0f k'/f eP klg klg ufF+p :t/;Dd PkmPd /]l8of] cem};Dd k'Ug ;s]sf] b]lvb}g . a|f]8sfl:6ª P;f]l;P;gsf dxf;lrj 9sfn Tof] s'/f :jLsf/ u5{g . pgL eG5g\–h'g ?kdf PkmPkm /]l8of]sf] lj:tf/ x'g' kg{] lyof] Tof] ?kdf x'g ;s]sf] 5}g . :yfgLo lgsfo -ufFp ljsf; ;ldlt Pj+ gu/kflnsf_ df nfdf] ;dob]lv hgk|ltlglw ljlxg ePsf sf/0fn] PkmPd /]l8of]x? ufFp :t/;Dd k'Ug g;Sg'sf] sf/0fdf ?kdf x]l/Psf] 5 . hgk|ltlglwx? x'Fbf x'g t pgLx?n] hgtfsf] kIfdf ;"rgf ;dfrf/ k|jflxt ug{ Ps uflj;s Ps PkmPd /]l8of]sf] cjwf/0fnfO{ sfof{Gjog uYo{] xf]nfg\ . sd{rf/Lx?n] qmflGtsf/L lg0f{o ug{ cfF6 gu/]s} sf/0f of] cj:yf cfpg g;s]sf] xf] . clxn] klg PkmPkm /]l8of] lhNnf ;b/d'sfd jf cf;kf;sf zx/x?df dfq} s]Gb|Lt 5g\ . ;/sf/n] u|fdL0f If]qdf PkmPd /]l8of] ;~rfngsf nflu :yfgLo lgsfodfkm{t ;xof]u pknJw u/fpg ;s] o;sf] kx"r ufFpsf hgtf;Dd k'Ug] ljZjf; lng ;lsG5 . ufpFsf afl;Gbfsf] ;"rgf cfjZostfdf /fHon] ;xof]u k'¥ofpg' kb{5 eGg] dfGotf cl3 a9\b} cfPsf] 5 . ufpFn] hgtfx?nfO{ /fHon] pknJw u/fpg' kg{] ;"rgf, lzIff, dgf]/~hg / nf]stflGqs/0f h:tf ljifodf PkmPkm /]l8of]x?n] ;3fO/x]sf 5g\ eg] pgLx?af6 /f]oN6L, btf{ / gjLs/0f z'Ns lnO/xg' pko'Qm xf]Og .

PkmPkm zf;ssf] cfFvfsf] sl;+u/

;"rgf, ;dfrf/ Pj+ dgf]~hgsf] rfxgf k"lt{ ug{ d'n'sdf PkmPd /]l8of] v'Ng] qmdsf] tLa|tfnfO{ /fhfsf] k|ToIf zf;gn] qmde+u ul/lbPsf] lyof] . ck|ToIf ?kdf @)%( c;f]h !* kl5 cfd;~rf/sf] bfo/f v'lDrg yfn]sf] dx;'; ;~rf/ If]qdf sfo{/tx?n] ug{ yfn]sf lyP . @)^! df3 !( k|s/0fkl5 cfd;~rf/nfO{ zf;sn] cfFvfsf] sl;+u/ 7fg]sf lyP . /fhfsf] k|ToIf zf;gsf] ef]lnkN6} /fhkqdfkm{ PkmPddf uLt dfq k|;f/0f ug'{ eGg] cfb]z hf/L u/L zf;sn] of] egfO{nfO{ k'li6 ul/lbPsf lyP . k|ToIf zf;gsf] k|f/Desf] s]xL lbg;Dd ;~rf/dfWoddf k|ToIf ;}lgs ;]G;/l;k ul/Psf] lyof] . @)^) kl5 PkmPd :jLs[lt nueu aGbs} cj:yfdf lyof] . df3 !( k|s/0f kl5sf rsf{] bdgsf sf/0f ePsf ;d]t aGb x'g] cj:yfdf k'u]sf lyP . gofF+ vf]Ng t k|ltaGw} lyof] . PkmPd :6];gsf ;fdu|L n'6\g]b]lv sfo{/t kqsf/nfO{ kqmfp ug{];Ddsf xs{tx? To;aLrdf ePsf lyP . ;dfrf/ k|;f/0f ug{ gkfpg] cfb]z, ;]G;/l;k tyf cWofb]zsf df/df u'h|]sf cfd;~rf/n] @)^# gofF+ aif{sf] k|f/Ded} :yflkt nf]stGq;F+u v'nf cfsfz kfPsf x'g\ . zfxL ;Qfn] PkmPd /]l8of]nfO{ /fhb|f]xL ;/xsf] Jojxf/ u/]sf]n] gofF+ :yfkgfsf] s'/f k/ hfcf]; k|;f/0fdf /x]sf k'/fgf :6]zgx?n] cfkm"nfO{ hLljt /fVg 7"nf] ;+3if{ ug'{k/]sf] lyof] . ;Qfn] s'ga]nf s'g :6]zgsf] ;fdu|L hkmt ug{] xf] lglZrt lyPg .

k|;f/0f cg'dltsf nflu ;/sf/L gLlt

PkmPd /]l8of]sf] nflu k|;f/0f cg'dltsf nflu s]xL pbf/ gLlt clVtof/ ug'{afx]s ;/sf/L ;bf;otf vfif} gb]vfPsf] l6Kk0fL cfO/xs} a]nf /]l8of] ;~rfng cg'dlt, btf{ tyf gjLs/0f z'Nsaf/] ;/sf/n] k'glj{rf/ u/]sf] 5 . nfO;]G; lngsf nflu hgcfGbf]ng–@ cl3;Dd cfly{s tyf k|fljlws k|:tfj kfl/t u/L k]; ug'{kg{] x'GYof] clxn] Tof] k|lqmofsf] cGTo e};s]sf] 5 . Ps b'O{nfv ?k}ofd} PkmPd /]l8of] rnfpg ;lsG5 eGg] dfGotfnfO{ ;/sf/n] :yflkt u/fpg vf]h]]sf] cfefif kfOPsf] 5 . oBkL of] cfefif sfof{Gjog r/0f;Dd cfOk'Ug ;do nfUnf .

;/sf/n] clxn] nfO;]G; lngsf nflu klxn]sf] t'ngfdf ;xh jftfj/0f agfPsf] k|lt nufgL stf{n] wGofjfb lbg} kb{5 . kl/jlt{t gLlt cg'?k krf;jf6 Ifdtf;Ddsf PkmPd /]l8of]sf] nfO;]G; lngsf nflu dGqfnonfO{ kfF+r;o ?k}ofF+ z'Ns a'emfP k'U5 . o;cl3 pQm Ifdtfsf] /]l8of] nfO;]G; lngsf nflu kfFr xhf/ ?k}ofF+ z'Ns ltg'{kYof]{] . ;~rf/ dGqfnon] Ps ;ojf6 Ifdtf;Ddsf] /]l8of] ;~rfng ug{ rfxg]nfO{ !) xhf/ z'Ns lng] Joj:yf ul/;s]sf] 5 . o;cl3 To;sf nflu %) xhf/ ?k}of a'emfpg' kb{Yof] . To:t} @ ;o %) jf6 Ifdtsf nflu Ps nfv %) xhf/ b:t'/ nfUg] u/]sf] 5 . o;cl3 To;sf nflu kfF+r nfv ?k}of a'emfpg' kb{Yof] . kfF+r ;ojf6 jf ;f]eGbfdflysf PkmPd k|;f/0fsf] nfO;]G; lngsf] nflu b'O{ nfv ?k}of s/ ltg'{kb{5 . o;cl3 To;sf nflu kfF+r nfv ?k}of s/ jfkt /sd ltg'{kb{Yof] . Go"gtd vr{ h'6fpg ;d:of x'g] b'u{d / ;LdfGt If]qdf o:tf] /]l8of] ;~rfngsf nflu ;/sf/n] cg'bfg lbg] gLlt agfpg'k5{ . ;fdfGotM %) b]lv !)) eGbf ;fgf Ifdtfsf /]l8of]nfO{ o:tf] ;x'lnto lbOP ;fj{hlgs ;"rgfdf u|fdL0f If]qsf hgtfsf] kx'Fr k'¥ofpg ;xof]u k'Ug]5 . nf]stGqsf] hu u|fdL0f tx;Dd k'¥ofpg ;/sf/n] of] sfo{nfO{ cl3 a9fpg' kb{5 . k|lqmo k'¥ofP/ lgjb]g lbP Ps dlxgf leq k|;f/0f cg'dltsf] nfO;]G; kfOG5 .

ufpFnfO{ nlIft ul/Psf] klxnf] PkmPkm

;/sf/n] s/ gLltdf ;/ntf agfOlbPs} cfwf/df PkmPkm /]l8of]sf] k|;f/0f cg'dlt lng]x?sf] ;+Vof a9\g uPsf] xf] . hgcfGbf]ng–@ cl3;Dd ;/sf/sf] gLlt lgoGq0ffTds ePsfn] PkmPdsf] lj:tf/ x'g g;s]sf] xf] . Tof] cjlwdf kx"Frjfnfx?n] k|;f/0f cg'dlt lng ;kmn ePsf lyP . pgLx?n] cfly{s If]qdf s]xL k|ult ug{ ;lsPnf eg]/ PkmPkm /]l8of]x?nfO{ ;x/df dfq} s]Gb|Lt agfPsf lyP . To; cjlwdf ufFpnfO{ nlIft ul/ :yfkgf ul/Psf] PkmPd /]l8of] kfNkfsf] dbgkf]v/f xf] . ufpF+ ljsf; ;ldltn] ;+rfng ug{] u/L :yfkgf ePsf] pQm PkmPd /]l8of] klg ;b/d'sfd glhs}sf] uflj;n] ;~rfng u/]sf] xf] . ;'?jftsf a]nf /]l8of]sdL{x?n] /]l8of] / cy{tGq;Fu} n}hfg' k5{ eg]/ o:tf] u/]sf x'g;S5g t/ of] dfGotfdf kl/jt{g Nofpg a|f]8sfl:6ª P;f]l;P;gn] nljª ul//x]sf] 5 .

hg:t/df k'Ug] df]8fln6Lsf] vf]hL

PkmPd /]l8of] ylk+g] qmdn] ahf/nfO{ k|lt:kwL{ agfPsf] ePklg Tof] :yfkgf ug{] kxF'r hg:t/;Dd k'Ug] df]8fln6L cem} alg;s]sf] 5}g . zlQm s]Gb|sf] j/k/sfx?n] g} PkmPd /]l8of]sf k|;f/0f cg'dlt -nfO;]G;_ lnPsf] b]lvPsf] 5 . hgtfsf] d]sflghd\ leq :yfkgf ug{] kxn ePsf] b]lvPsf] 5}g . PkmPd /]l8of] cfdhgtfsf] kx"Fr leq Nofpg] cj:yf agfpg h?/L 5 . clxn] klg /]l8of] / cy{tGq;Fu} n}hfg' k5{ eGg] dfGotfdf kl/jt{g cfpg ;s]sf] 5}g . /]l8of] zlQm xf] eGg] ;f]rdf sfd eO/x]sf] 5 . ;/n cfly{s df]8ndf PkmPd /]l8of]x? ;+rfng ug{ ;s] To;nfO{ cfGbf]ngsf] d]sflghd agfpg ;lsG5 . hgtfsf] zlQmsf ?kdf ldl8ofnfO{ cl3 n}hfg' kb{5 . ;/sf/n] ufpF+ :t/df PkmPd lj:tf/ ug{] of]hgfa4 9+uaf6 cl3 a9]sf] b]lvb}g .

PkmPkmsf] kx"r

hgcfGbf]ng–@ cl3;Dd k|;f/0fdf /x]sf -%!_ PkmPdx?n] ^% k|ltzt hg;F+VofnfO{ ;d]6\g ;s]sf] lyof] . clxn] ;tk|ltzt e"efudf PkmPd /]l8of] k'u]sf] 5 . d'n'ssf] hg;+Vofsf] () k|ltztnfO{ PkmPd /]l8of]sf] k|;f/0fn] ;d]6\g ;s]sf] bfaL ul/Psf] 5 . Ps lhNnf Ps PkmPd /]l8of]sf] cjwf/0ff nueu k'/f x'g] r/0fdf k'u]sf] 5 . PkmPd /]l8of]n] hg:t/df ;"rgf t k'¥ofof] k'¥ofof] ljrf/ / cleJolQm :jtGqtfsf] clwsf/nfO{ klg ;'lglZrt ug{ ;kmn ePsf] 5 . nf]stGq :yfkgf x'g'klxn]b]lv k|;f/0fdf /x]sf PkmPdx?n] ;dfrf/ s]Gb|sf] dfq} x'G5 eGg] dfGotfnfO{ x6fO;s]sf] lyof] . cleJolQm :jtGqtfsf] 3fF6L lgdf]l7Psf] /fhfsf] k|ToIf zf;gsf] sfn/flqdf klg hgtfnfO{ ;";'lrt ug{] bfloTjaf6 w]/}h;f] PkmPdx? ljd'v gePsf]n] clxn] o;sf] cfsif{0f a9]/ uPsf] xf] . gful/s clwsf/sf nflu hgtfn] ;~rfng u/]sf cfGbf]ngdf /]l8of]n] k'¥ofPsf] of]ubfg ;Dem]/ klg :yfgLo:t/df /]l8of] :yfkgf ug{ xf}l;Psf] ?kdf lnOg' kb{5 .

kx"r a9\gdf k|ljlwsf] k|f]T;fxg

PkmPkm /]l8of]sf] lj:tf/ x'g'df ;"rgf k|ljlwdf If0f If0fdf x'g] k|ljlwsf] ljsf;n] klg ;3fPsf] 5 . :of6nfO{6 dfkm{t /]l8of] t/ª k|jflxt ug{ ;'? ul/P kl5 o;sf] kx"F+rdf ljsf; eO/x]sf] 5 . 6]lnkmf]gsf] pknAwtfn] klg o;sf] lj:tf/df ;3fPsf] ?kdf lnOg' kb{5 . OG6/g]6sf] pknJwtfnfO{ klg kx'F+r a9\g'sf] csf{] sf/0fsf ?kdf lnOPsf] 5 .

PkmPdx?sf] Ifdtf

la|6L; uf]vf{h g]kfn ljPkm=ljP;n] lnPsf] kfF+r jf6 Ifdt, s]Gb|df /x]sf] :6]zgsf ;fdfu|Lx? ckln+s u/L k|;f/0fsf] kx"F+rdf lj:tf/ ug{ sflGtk'/ PkmPd k|flnn] !) jf6 Ifdtf, PG6]gf kmfpG8];gn] 3'DtL /]l8of] ;~rfng ug{ @) jf6 Ifdtfsf] cg'dlt b]lv sflnsf PkmPdn] @ xhf/ jf6 ;Ddsf] PkmPd ;~rfngsf nflu nfO;]G; lnOPsf] lnOPsf] 5 . ef}uf]lns If]qsf lx;fan] klg o;sf] ;dfg ljt/0f x'g;S5 eGg]tkm{ a]n}df ;r]t x'g' h?/L 5 . sxfF slt Ifdtfsf :6]zg ;~rfng ug{ ;lsG5 eGg] k"j{of]hgfsf] cefjdf ljutdf h:t} nfO;]G; kfpg]n] lsg kfof] / gkfpg]n] lsg kfPg eGg] hjfkm hgtfn] kfPgg eg] nf]stflGqs ;/sf/n] klg lhDd]jf/k"0f{ sfo{ ug{ g;s]sf] 7xl/g] 5 . ;/sf/n] pkTofsfdf Ps xhf/ / pkTofsf aflx/ b'O{ xhf/ jf6 Ifdtfsf] PkmPd /]l8of] ;~rfng ug{ ;Sg] u/L v'Nnf u/]sf] 5 .

zlQmsf ?kdf ldl8of

PkmPd /]l8ofdf cfPsf] a9f]Q/LnfO{ ldl8of zlQm xf] eGg] ;f]r tNtf] tx;Dd k'u]sf] cy{sf ?kdf lnOg' kb{5 . /fHon] of] zlQmnfO{ ;se/ cfkm}+n] rnfpg' k5{ eGg] dfGotf af]s]sf sf/0f lghL If]qnfO{ ;'?df nfO;]G; pknJw u/fpg l9nfO ul/Psf] xf] . t/, clxn] l:yltdf cfd"n kl/jt{g eO;s]sf] 5 . nfO;]G; lng k|lqmof k'¥ofP vfif} cK7\of/f] kg{] ub{]g .

PkmPkmsf] kx"r k'u]sf :yfgdf cfGbf]ng lta|

/fhfsf] k|ToIf zf;g cGTo u/L d'n'sdf nf]stGq:yfkgf ug{ ul/Psf] kl5Nnf] hgcfGbf]ng x]g{] xf] eg] klg hxfF+ hxfF+ PkmPd /]l8of]sf] se/]h k'u]sf] 5 ToxfFaf6 a9L g} hgtfx? cfGbf]ngdf plqPsf lyP . PkmPdnfO{ kl/jt{gsf] 6'N;sf ?kdf pkof]u ul/Psfn] g} o:tf] ePsf] xf] . PkmPd /]l8of]nfO{ kl/jt{gsf] 6'Nsf ?kdf cl3 a9fpg' kg{] cfjfh cfO/x]sf] 5 . o;f] ug{ ;lsP d'n'se/ sDo'lgs];gsf] ;~hfn aGg] 5 . clg kl/jt{gsf 9f]sfx? :jt v'Nb} hfg]5g\ . hgtf alnof] x'g ;Sg] 5g\ . ufpF+ ljsf;sf nflu eg]/ /fHon] ljlgof]hg u/]sf] ah]6 kf/bzL{ 9+un] \vr{ x'g]5 . e|i6frf/ lgoGq0f ug{ ;3fp k'¥ofpg] 5 . hgtfsf] ;"rgfsf] xs, ljrf/ tyf cleJolQm tNnf] txdf k'¥ofpg ;lsg]5 . o;n] hgtfsf] dfunfO{ /fHo kIfn] c+ufNg afWo x'g]5 .

/]l8of]n] /fli6«o of]hgf cfof]usf] /ftf] lstfjdf ljlgof]hgf u/]sf] ah]6 lhNnftxdf of] If]qdf olt 5'6\ofPsf] 5 eGg] atfOlb+bf ah]6sf] ;b'kof]u a9]/ hfg]5 .

:ki6 kl/efiffsf] vfF+rf]

;/sf/n] Jofj;flos / ;fd'bflos PkmPdsf] kl/efiff gu/]sf] cj:yfdf ;~rfnsx?n] cfkm" of] x'F+ eg]/ bfjL ul/lb+bf hgtfsf] ;"rgf kfpg] clwsf/ s'l07t x'g] vt/f a9]sf] Ps y/Ln] l6Kk0fL klg ug{ yfn]sf 5g\ . /fHon] ;fd'bflos /]l8of] tyf Joj;flos /]l8of]sf] k|;f/0f cg'dlt ln+bf s'g} lje]b u/]sf] 5}g . ;fd"bflos /]l8of] bftfsf] Ozf/fdf rNg' kg{] ePsf sf/0fn] Jofj;flos /]l8of]sf] t'ngfdf hgtfsf] ;]jf ug{ g;s]sf] xf] ls eGg] l6Kk0fL obfsbf ;'lgg yfn]sf] 5 . t/, ;fd'bflos /]l8of] k|;f/s ;+3n] o;nfO{ 7f8} c:jLsf/ u/]sf] 5 . ;/sf/n] o;df s'g} lje]bsf/L gLlt agfPsf] 5}g eG5g ;"rgf tyf ;~rf/ dGqfno >Jo b[Zo zfvfsf clws[t k|df]b 9'+ufgf . b'O{ ;ojf6 Ifdtf ;Ddsf /]l8of]nfO{ ;fd'bflos x'g eGg] b[li6n] x]/]sf 5f}+ pgn] eg]–:yfgLo :t/df o:t} :6]zg :yfkgfnfO{ k|f]T;flxt ug{ vfh]sf 5f}+ . ;d'bfon] :yfgLo hgzlQm kl/rfng u/L cfwf/e"t ;"rgf cfjZostf kl/k"lt{sf nflu cfkm\g} cu|;/tfdf u}/gfkmfd"ns p2]Zon] :yfkgf ug{] ;fgf /]l8of]nfO{ k|f]T;flxt ug{ s]xL gLltut ;'wf/ ug{] u[xsfo{df /x]sf] pgn] atfP .

;/sf/L txaf6} /]l8of]nfO{ ;]jfd"ns / Jofkfl/s egL auL{s/0f ug'{kg{] dfu klg /]l8of] sdL{x?n] ul//x]sf 5g\ . :ki6 kl/efiff;lxtsf] auL{s/0fn] sxfF+ slt Ifdtfsf Jofkfl/s :6]zgx? vf]Ng cg'dlt lbg] xf] eGg] lgwf{/0f ul/g'kg{] csf{] dfGotf klg cl3 cfO;s]sf] 5 .

s]Gb|d} clws df]x

;"rgf Joj;foL cfkm}n] cfkm\g} kxndf ;8sn] g5f]Psf e"efusf hgtfsf] ;"rgf, ljrf/ / cleJolQmsf] ;Ddfg ub{] PkmPkm vf]Ng] k|of;sf] k|z+;f ug{]k5{ . lg/If/ hgtf ax'n b]zdf PkmPdsf] nx/ cfpg' ;'vb kIf xf] kqsf/ dxf;+3sf cWoIf lgi7'/L eG5g\–oL k|;f/0f dfWodn] ;+ljwfg;ef lgjf{rgsf a]nf hghfu/0f cleofgdf e'ldsf v]Ng]5g\ . tyfkL PkmPdsf] clwsdf]x /fhwfgL Pj+ zx/d} b]lvPsf] 5 . /fhwfgLleq #$ PkmPdn] Ohfht kfPsf 5g\ . cem} ;/sf/n] s'g lhNnfnfO{ slt PkmPd vf]Ng lbg]eGg] gLlt clVtof/ ug{ ;s]sf] 5}g . PkmPd /]l8of]df wg nufpg] df]x a9]klg /fhwfgL Pj+ ;x/df dfq} l;ldt /x]sf] tkm{ eg] lrGtf JoQm ul/g'kb{5 .

;"rgf ;dfrf/d} hf]8

sfo{qmdsf xsdf ;dfrf/d"ns sfo{+qmd, Go"h P08 s/]G6 ckm]o;{ -6s zf]_ tyf dgf]/~hgfTds sfo{qmdx?nfO{ g} PkmPd /]l8of]n] k|fyldstf lbg] u/]sf 5g\ . zflGt sfndf o:tf] lyof] eg] 4G4 rls{g yfn]kl5 Go"h P08 s/]G6 ckm]o;{s} sfo{qmdx? al9 k|;f/0f ug{] u/]sf] b]lvPsf] 5 .

;dfrf/sf kl/efiff / dfGottfdf kl/jt{g

nf]stGq kl5 ;fdfrf/sf kl/efiff / dfGotfx? kl/jt{g eO/x]sf 5g\ . zlQm s]Gb| / /fhgLltnfO{ dfq ;dfrf/sf] k|fyldstf leq /flvg] k/Dk/fsf] nueu cGTo h:t} ePsf] 5 . ;dfrf/sf] k|:t'tL z}nL;d]t kl/jt{g eO/x]sf] 5 . Ps ;ftfsf jf;L cvaf/df /dfpg] ljs6sf kxf8L ufpFdf laxfg} /]l8of]n] cvaf/df n]lvPsf ;dfrf/ / ljZn]if0f ;'gfOlb+bf pgLx?sf] ;"rgf ef]snfO{ k"lt{ ug{ d2t ul/lbPsf] 5 . ;/sf/L :jfldTjsf] /]l8of] g]kfnaf6 ;Qfwf/L bn / ltgsf g]tfsf] ehg dfq} ;'Gg'kg{] afWotfnfO{ lghL If]qsf PkmPd /]l8of]n] tf]l8lbPsf 5g\ .

lk|mSj]G;L ljt/0fdf ;d:o

lk|mSj]G;L klAns k|k{6L xf] eGg] /fHon] cem} :jLsf/ u/]sf] c:yf 5}g . ;/sf/n] e6fe6 nfO;]G; ljt/0f ul//xF+bf /]l8of] lk|mSj]G;Lsf] ;Lldttf / :yfgLo cfjZostfaf/] kof{Kt Wofg k'¥kfPsf] b]lvb}g . tyfkL ;/sf/L clwsf/Lx?n] /fhwfgL tyf PkmPdsf] w]/} rfk ePsf cGo s]xL zx/LIf]qdf lk|mSj]G;L k'gJo{j:yfkgsf] u[xsfo{ eO/x]sf] atfP/ of] lrGtfnfO{ s]xL sd ug{] k|of; u/]sf 5g\ . of] k|fs[lts ;DklQ xf] o;df hgtfsf] clwsf/ x'g' k5{ eGg]x? cufl8 cfO/x]sf 5g\ .

/]l8of] k|efjsf/L dfWod

ljs6 ef}uf]lns If]q, clzlIft / ?9Lu:t ;dfhsf] ?kfGt/0fsf nflu /]l8of] ;a}eGbf k|efjsf/L dfWod xf] eGg]df b'O{dt 5}g . sfdsf a]nfdf klg ;'Gg ;lsg], lg/If/n] a'emg] / ul/an] ;]6 lsg]/ ahfpg ;Sg] ljz]iftfn] g]kfnL ;dfhdf o;sf] nf]slk|otf a9]sf] xf] . oxfF+sf] ljljwtfnfO{ ;d]6\b} k/Dk/fut 1fg, ;Lk / r]tgfsf] cfw'lgsLs/0f ug{, nf]stflGqs ;+:sf/nfO{ cfwf/e"t tx;Dd k'¥ofpg, k5fl8 k/]sf] ;d'bfonfO{ /fhgLlt / ljsf;sf] d"nwf/df Nofpg ljlzi6 of]ubfg ug{ ;Sg] of] g} k|efjsf/L dfWod xf] .

Ps ltxfO dfq} lgoldt k|;f/0fdf

d'n'sdf Ohfhtkq k|fKt PkmPddWo] sl/a Ps ltxfOn] dfq lgoldt ?kdf sfo{qmd k|;f/0f u/]sf 5g\ . tL dWo] ^( j6f PkmPd dfq} k|;f/0fdf cfPsf] ;~rf/ dGqfnon] hgfPsf] 5 . pkTosfdf @@ j6f PkmPd k|;fl/t 5g\ . pkTosfdf Ohfht k|fKt PkmPdsf] ;+Vof #$ 5 . ;fd'bflos /]l8of] k|;f/s ;+3sf cg';f/ Ohfht k|fKt ^* j6f ;fd'bflos /l8of] 5g\ . Ohfht lnPsf] Ps jif{leq PkmPd lgoldt k|;f/0fdf cfO;s]sf] x'g'k5{ ;"rgf tyf ;~rf/ dGqfnosf zfvfclws[t k|df]b 9'+ufgfn] eg] . Ohfht k|fKt ug{] dWo] w]/} PkmPd k/LIf0f k|;f/0fdf /x]sf kfOPsf] 5 .

;/sf/ ;xof]uL e"ldsfdf

lj1fkgnufotsf If]qaf6 PkmPd /]l8of]x?nfO{ ;xof]u k'¥ofpg ;/sf/ ;sf/fTds x'g] ;+s]t lbPsf] 5 . gljs/0f z'Ns Ps ;o !) k|ltzt ldgfx x'g] lg0f{o u/]/ To; If]qdf lqmoflzn ePsfx?nfO{ /fxt lbO;s]sf] 5 . o;cl3 gljs/0f z'Ns eg]/ ;/sf/n] jif{] ;+:yfn] jif{el/ sdfPsf] cfDbfgLsf] $ k|ltzt z'Ns /f]oN6L afkt lng] ul/GYof] . gljs/0f z'Ns Ps ;o !) k|ltztn] ldgfx ul/lbPsf] 5 .

vf]hL lgodg lgsfosf]

PkmPd /]l8of]sf] lj:tf/;F+u} o;n] k|zf/0f ug{] sfo{qmdb]lv ;a} kIfaf/] lgu/fgL s;n] ug{] xf] Tof] kIf df}g b]lvg'nfO{ cgf}7f] ?kdf lnOg' kg{] ePsf] 5 . ;~rf/ dGqfnon] nfO;]G; ljt/0f u/]kl5 p;sf] bfloTj k'/f x'g] cj:yf cem} ljBdfg /x]sf] 5 . k|zf/0fsf] nfO;]G; ln+bf h] h:tf k|ltjb4tfx? JoQm ul/Psf lyP Tof] eP gePsf] lgu/fgL ug{] ;+oGq ljsf; ul/g' kb{5 .

sfuhd} l;ldt ;/sf/L of]hgf

cfd;~rf/sf] bfo/fnfO{ dof{lbt / km/flsnf] kfg{] 3f]if0ff ub{} nf]stflGqs ;/sf/n] pRr:t/Lo d]l8of cfof]u agfP klg cfof]usf] k|ltj]bg b/fh} l;ldt /fVg'nfO{ cfd;~rf/sf] Joj;fodf lqmofzLn nufgLstf{, sfdbf/x?n] lrGtf k|s6 u/]sf 5g\ . cfof]un] lbPsf] k|ltj]bgsf cfwf/df gLlt, lgod agfpg] xf] eg] cfd;~rf/df nufgLsf] If]q cem km/flsnf] aGg] lglZrt 5 . ;/sf/sf] c:ki6 gLltsf sf/0f d]l8ofdf ckf/bzL{ 9+udf ljb]zL nufgL lelqg] sfd eO/x]sf 5g\ . cfof]un] nufgL, k|;f/0f k|flws/0fsf lgsfo, kqsfl/tf cfrf/;+lxtf;Ddsf] l;kmfl; u/]sf] 5 .

bnx?sf] 4}wrl/q cGTosf] vfFrf]

bnx?n] ;Qf aflx/ /xFbf / ;Qfdf k'Ubf km/s rl/q b]vfpg] u/]sf] k|lt dxf;+3 cWoIf lgi7'/Ln] lrGtf k|s6 u/] . pgL eG5g–bnx?df 4}wrl/q 5, Tof] bnn] TofUg ;Sg'k5{ . nf]stGqsf nflu /fhgLlts zlQm;/x n8]sf ;~rf/sdL{;F+u Tolta]nfsf] argcg'?k rNg'k5{ . ;/sf/L cwLgsf ;a} ;~rf/dfWodnfO{ :jfoQtf lbO{ hgtfsf] clwgdf /flvg' kb{5 . nf]stGqsf lgDtL n8]sf kqsf/ pRr dgf]an / pT;flxt cj:yf 5g\ . /fHon] clnslt 9f]sf vf]Ngf;fy ;~rf/sdL{ cfkm} cfkm\gf] e"ldsf km/flsnf] kfg{] sfddf sDd/ s;]/ nfUg] 5g\ . ;+rf/ dfWoddf 7"nf] wg nufgL x'g'nfO{ Tolx sf/0fsf ?kdf lnOg' kb{5 . To;sf nflu zf;sn] dg eg] pbf/ agfOlbg' kb{5 . oBkL lg/+s'z zfxL ;Qfsf] aqmb[li6n] ;+s6df k/]sf] ;~rf/nfO{ nf]stflGqs ;/sf/n] k|f]T;flxt ug{] gLlt lnPkl5 PkmPd ;~rfng ug{]x? xf}l;Psf 5g\ . v'nf nf]stflGqs Joj:yfdf /]l8of] :yfgLo ;"rgf kl/k"lt{sf ;zQm / k|efjsf/L cfwf/ dflgG5g\ .

lgisif{ / ;'emfj

/fhwfgL / k|d'v ;x/ s]lGb|t PkmPdsf 6fj/ b'u{d lhNnf / ufFpdf b]lvg' ;"rgf qmflGtsf] gofF ?k xf] . ljs]Gb|Lt PkmPd /]l8of]n] y'k|} ;"rgfsf el/of hGdfO/x]sf] 5 .

PkmPd /]l8of]sf] lj:tf/s} sf/0f Ps ;ftfsf jf;L cvaf/df /dfpg] ljs6sf kxf8L ufpFdf laxfg} /]l8of]n] cvaf/df n]lvPsf ;dfrf/ / ljZn]if0f ;'gfOlb+bf pgLx?sf] ;"rgf ef]snfO{ k"lt{ ug{ d2t ul/lbPsf] 5 . ufpFn] hgtf klg l5g l5gd} d'n'sdf eO/x]sf 36gfx? l5g l5gd} yfxf kfpg ;Sg] ePsf 5g\ . oL ;sf/fTds kIf eP klg /fhgLlts kx"F+rs} e/df nfO;]G; lng] k|j[ltsf] cGTo x'g g;Sg' b'vb kIf xf] . PkmPd /]l8of] ;~rfngsf] cg'dlt k|bfg ug{] dfq} /fHosf] bfloTo geO{ pgLx?sf] lgu/fgL ug'{ h?/L ePsf] 5 . sfo{qmd s;sf k|lt nlIft 5 Tof] lgu/fgL ul//xg ;lsP o;sf] eljio cem pHHjn x'g] b]lvPsf] 5 .

;Gbe{ ;fdu|Lx?

!= ;"rgf tyf ;+rf/ dGqfnosf] j]e;fO6 -8Jn'8An'8An' 86 Pdcf]cfO;L 86 lhcf]eL 86 PgkL_

@= ;~rf/ dGqfno >Jo b[Zo zfvfsf zfvf clws[t k|df]9 9'+ufgf -s'/fsfgL_

#= kqsfl/tf, g]kfn kqsf/ dxf;+3, @)^# c;f]h

$= lji0f' lgi7'/L, cWoIf, g]kfn kqsf/ dxf;+3 -s'/fsfgL_

%= /]l8of] ;u/dfyfsf] j]e;fO6-8Jn'8An'8An' 86 /]l8of];u/dfyf 86 cf]/hL_

^= lji0f'xl/ 9sfn, dxf;lrj, a|f]8sfl:6ª P;f]l;P;g ckm g]kfn - s'/fsfgL_

&= ;fd'bflos /]l8of] k|;f/s ;+3

;fs{ /fi6«x?df /]l8of]sf] ljsf;

kl/roM

;+rf/ dfWoddf /]l8of]sf] dxTj kl5Nnf] ;dodf cfP/ lgs} ljsl;t ePsf] 5 . 5fkf dfWoddf ljleGg kqklqsfsf] dxTj a9\b} uPkl5 ljB'lto dfWoodsf] ?kdf /x]sf] /]l8of]sf] klg dxTj a9]sf] xf] . ljB'lto dfWod cGtu{tsf] /]l8of]sf] ljsf; klg kl5Nnf] ;dodf emg} emfËLb} uPsf] 5 . To;df klg PlzofnL d'n'sdf o;n] ljz]if dxTj kfp“b} uPsf] 5 .

ljZjdf /]l8of]sf] ljsf;qmdnfO{ x]g{] xf] eg] ;g\ !()^ df klxnf]k6s cfjfhsf] cfbfg k|bfg ePsf] lyof] . Sofg]l8ogn] …lqmzd; O{eÚ df cd]l/sfsf] Massachutes af6 sljtf / ;+uLt k7fPsf lyP . h'g P6nfl06sdf hxfhdf ;'lgPsf] lyof] . Reginald Fessenden n] pQm sfo{ u/]sf lyP . To; cl3 g} ;g\ !*(% df O{6nLsf u'lUndLof] dfsf{]gLn] /]l8of] tf/ k|of]u gu/L g} jfo'd08ndf x'g] t/Ësf] ;j{k|yd kl/If0f u/]sf lyP .

;g\ !()! df dfsf{]gLn] cd]l/sfsf] Go" kmfp08Nof08df klxnf] k6s /]l8of] Signal Receive ug{] k|ljlw kQf nfu]sf] lyof] . ;g\ !()* df cd]l/sfsf Lee De Forest n] k|zf/0fnfO{ csf{] dfWoddf nu]sf lyP . pgnfO{ g} /]l8of]sf] lktf klg elgG5 . pgn] k|mfG;sf] Ifel Tower af6 /]l8of] sfo{qmd k|zf/0f u/]sf lyP . h'g cfjfh % ;o dfO{n 6f9f ;Dd ;'lgPsf] lyof] . h;nfO{ /]l8of]sf] klxnf] kfO{nf klg elgG5 . !$ clk|n !(!@ df l8kf{6d]06 :6f]/sf] /]l8of] ck/]zgdf sfd ug{] David Sarnof eGg] s]6fn] 6fO{6flgs hxfh cfO;ju{df 7f]sLPsf] / 8'Ag nfu]sf] va/ &@ 306f;Dd klg ;'lgPsf] lyof] . pQm 36gfn] g} /]l8of] / ;dfrf/sf] dxTj /x]sf] 5 eGg] s'/fsf] :ki6 kf/]sf] lyof] .

t/Ësf] dfWodaf6 ;+s]t k7fpg / kfpg ;lsg] k|ljlw kQf nfu]kl5 ljZjdf /]l8of] cfljZsf/ ePsf] dflgG5 . /]l8of] ;DalGw k|ljlw kQf nufPsf] sl/a (% jif{kl5 /]l8of]df dflg;sf] cfjfh / ;+uLt k|zf/0f x'g yfn]sf] xf] . ;g\ !(@) df ;+;f/d} klxnf]k6s lgoldt ?kdf /]l8of] k|zf/0f x'g yfn]sf] xf] . pQm ;dodf KDKA eGg] sDklgn] Pitsburg af6 /fi6«kltsf] r'gfjsf] af/]df atfO{Psf] lyof] . ;g\ !(@@ df lala;L k|zf/0f ;'?jft eof] . /]l8of] k|ljlwsf] ljsf; x'b} hfg] qmddf Earnest Armestrong n] ;g\ !(## df PkmPd k|ljlwsf] ljsf; u/]sf lyP .

lalal;sf] /]l8of] k|zf/0f kl5 ;g\ !(#^ b]lv ef/tdf cn O{l08of /]l8of]sf] k|zf/0f ;'? eof] . bf]>f] ljZjo'4 b]lv g} /]l8of]sf] k|of]u cTolws ?kdf x'g yfNof] . /]l8of]df ;dfrf/ cfpg yfn]kl5 5fkf dfWodn] /]l8of]nfO{ zq'sf ?kdf x]g{ yfn] To;tfsfsf ;dfrf/kqx? /]l8of]sf] k|zf/0faf6 tl;g{ yfn] . To; ;dodf cd]l/sfdf /]l8of]sf] cfkm\g} ;+jfbbftf lyPgg\ / To;} cj:yfdf ;dfrf/kqx?n] ;dfrf/ Ph]G;LnfO{ /]l8of]nfO{ ;dfrf/ glbg cg'/f]w u/]sf lyP . ;g\ !(## df Network Broadcasting ljsf; eO{;s]sf] lyof] . ;g\ !(#) sf] bzsdf PkmPd /]l8of]sf] k|zf/0f ;'?jft ePsf] xf] . bf]>f] ljZjo'4tfsf cfO{k'Ubf sl/a @) j6f PkmPd /]l8of] k|zf/0f eO{;s]sf lyP . !(^) sf] bzskl5 PkmPd /]l8of]sf] nfuL ;'gf}nf lbg cFP, To;} cg'?k /]l8of]sf] ljsf; cuf8L a9]sf] xf] .

cd]l/sfdf /]l8of]sf] ;'?jft -!(@)_ ePsf] sl/a #) jif{kl5 !($) sf] cGTo lt/ blIf0f Plzofdf ;fd'bfoLs /]l8of]sf] ljsf; ePsf] xf] . !(%) sf] bzsdf cd]l/sf / Sofg8fdf ;fd'bflos k|zf/0f ;'? ePsf] lyof] . h'g :yfgdf ;/sf/L /]l8of]sf] kx'“r k'u]sf] x'b}g To; :yfgdf ;fd'bflos /]l8of] ;+rfng ug{ cg'dlt lbPsf] lyof] . !(&) sf] bzsdf dfq o'/f]kdf ;fd'bflos /]l8of]sf] k|zf/0f ePsf] lyof] .

g]kfn

g]kfndf h'g ;do;Dd PstlGqo /f0ff zf;g lyof] To; ;do;Dd /]l8of] k|zf/0f s]Gb|sf] :yfkgf ePsf] lyPg . g]kfnsf tTsfnLg k|fO{dldlgi6/ >L # h'4 zd;]/sf] zf;g sfndf /f0ff kl/jf/ afx]s ;j{;fwf/0f hgtfn] /]l8of] /fVg kfO{GgYof] . k|fO{dldlgi6/ >L # kß zd;]/sf] kfnfdf @))$ ;fnb]lv g]kfnLnfO{ g]kfnleq /]l8of] /fVg kfpg] ;'ljwf k|bfg ul/Psf] lyof] . To; ;dob]lv g} ;j{;fwf/0f g]kfnLx?n] ljb]zL ;dfrf/ ;'Gg yfn]sf lyP . @))& ;fnsf] qmflGtsf] dWo cj:yf, h'g ;dodf >L % lqe'jgsf] g]t[Tjdf g]kfnsf tTsflng /f0fzf;s / g]kfnL sf+u|];sf] lar ;Demf}tfsf] s'/fsfgL lblNndf nlDsb} lyof] To;}tfsf Ps lbg /]l8of]sf] $! ld6/df –…of] k|hftGq /]l8of] xf], xfdL d'lQm ;+u|fdsf] df]rf{af6 af]nL/x]sf 5f}Ú eGg] g]kfnL af]nLdf cfjfh ;'lgof] . lbg olsg gePklg @))& ;fnsf] df3 dlxgf xf] . o;} ;dob]lv g]kfndf g]kfnL efiffaf6 /]l8of]sf] k|zf/0f ;'? ePsf] xf] .

z'?df lj/f6gu/l:yt /3'klt h'6 ldndf o;sf] :6]zgsf] :yfkgf ul/Psf] lyof] . k|zf/0fsfo{ …6]njf/Ú gfds 6«fG;ld6/åf/f rnfO{Psf] lyof] . @))& ;fn r}t @) ut]af6 l;+xb/jf/ :s'n 3/df /]l8of] g]kfnsf] gfdaf6 o;sf] :yfkgf ePsf] xf] . o;} lbgb]lv g} g]kfnL efiffdf ;dfrf/sf] k|zf/0f ug{] sfo{ z'? ePsf] lyof] . –g]kfnsf] 5fkfvfgf / kqklqsfsf] O{ltxf“;, u[id axfb'/ b]jsf]6f, @)%(, ;femf k|sfzg, !*! ;'?sf] cj:yfdf @ ;o %) jf6 Ifdtfsf] 6«fG;ld6/af6 k|zf/0f ;'? ePsf] lyof] . /]l8of]sf] ;'?jft;“u} g]kfnL, c+u|]hL / g]jf/L efiffdf ;dfrf/ k|zf/0f ug{ yflnPsf] lyof] . rf/ 306fsf] ;doaf6 k|zf/0f ;'? ul/Psf] /]l8of] g]kfn @)!& ;fndf % 306f k|zf/0f cjlw k'¥ofOof] . To;}u/L ;dofjlw yKg]qmd ;“u} @)@% ;fndf b}lgs !@ 306f k|zf/0f ug{ yflnof] . @)$! ;fndf /]l8of] g]kfnsf] ;+u7gfTds kl/jt{g x'g k'Uof] . h; cg';f/ To;cl3 ;Dd >L % sf] ;/sf/sf] k|;f/ ljefu cGt/ut /x]sf] /]l8of] g]kfnnfO{ …/]l8of] k|;f/ ljsf; ;ldltÚ cGt{ut /flvof] .

@)$^ ;fnsf] cfGbf]ngkl5 k|fKt k|hftGq / @)$& ;fnsf] g]kfn clw/fHosf] ;+ljwfgn] ;a} gfu/LsnfO{ ljrf/ / cleJolQmsf] :jtGqtf Pj+ ;fj{hlgs dxTjsf] s'g} klg ljifosf] ;"rgf kfpg] clwsf/ / xs k|bfg u/]sf] lyof] . o;}sf cfwf/df /x]/ tTsflng >L % sf] ;/sf/n] …/fli6«o ;+rf/ gLlt @)$(Ú ;fj{hlgs u¥of] . h; cGtu{t /x]/ gLlh If]qsf ;+u7gnfO{ /]l8of] cyf{t PkmPd -lk|mSj]G;L df]8'n];g_ k|zf/0f k|0ffnL :yfkgf ug{ 9f]sf vf]lnlbof] . To;sf] kmn:j?k lzIffd'ns / dgf]/~hgfTds sfo{qmdx? k|zf/0f ug{] cg'dlt lbO{of] .

PkmPd /]l8of] g]kfnL ;dfhdf ;"rgf / dgf]~hgsf] l56f] / ;:tf] dfWod ag]sf 5g\ . @)%@ sflQsb]lv ! ;o d]ufxh{sf] …PkmPd sf7df8f}+Ú ;“u} o;sf] k|j]z ePsf] xf] . To;kl5 la:tf/} /fhwfgL s]Gb|Lt PkmPdx? ;x/ / ufp“df k'Ub}5g\ . /fhwfgL / 7'nf zx/ s]Gb|Lt PkmPdx? ljs6 kxfl8 lhNnfx?df ;d]t ;'? x'“b}5g\ . PkmPd /]l8of]x?sf] df]x olt w]/} a9]sf] 5 ls clwsf+z lhNnf ;b/d'sfddf /]l8of] ;+rfngsf] cg'dlt lbO{;sLPsf] 5 . s0ff{nL c~rnsf] 8f]Nkf afx]s x'Dnf, h'Dnf, d'u' / sflnsf]6df ;d]t /]l8of] ;+rfng ug{] cg'dlt lbO{;lsPsf 5g\ . ;8s /]vfn] g5f]Psf] lju6 d'u'df ;d]t @ j6f /]l8of]n] ;+rfng cg'dlt lnPsf 5g\ . –k|]; :jtGqtf, nf]stGqsf] Ps jif{, g]kfn kqsf/ dxf;+3, d] #, @))&, ljZj k|]; :jtGqtfsf cj;/df k|sflzt k':ts, k|];df ;sf/fTds kl/jt{g, xl/axfb'/ yfkf, !&^

@)^# ;fpg @* df /]l8of] ;+rfng cg'dlt lng] qmd a9]sf] xf] . ;+rf/dlGq:t/af6 @)^# ;fpg !* df PkmPd /]l8of] k|zf/0f cg'dlt lbg] lg0f{o ePsf] lyof] . To;kl5 PkmPd /]l8of]sf] O{hfht lng]sf] ;+Vof x\jfQ} a9]sf] lyof] . ;+rf/ dGqfnosf] tYofÍ cg';f/ @)^# ;fpg otfdfq dGqfnon] ! ;o @( j6f gof“ PkmPd /]l8of]sf] cg'dlt lbPsf] 5 . g]kfndf xfn;Dd PkmPd /]l8of]sf] k|zf/0f cg'dlt lng]sf] ;+Vof a9]/ @ ;o gf3]sf] 5 .

PkmPd / ;fd'bflos /]l8of] k|zf/0fsf b[li6n] g]kfn blIf0f PlzofnL /fi6«df cu|0fL dflgG5 . g]kfn jftfj/0f kqsf/ ;d'xn] klxnf] :jtGq /]l8of] :6]zgsf] ?kdf @)%$ h]7 % ut] …/]l8of] ;u/dfyfÚ :yfkgfsf] cg'dlt kfPkl5 ;fd'bflos /]l8of]sf] k|j]z ePsf] xf] . /]l8of] ;u/dfyfsf] :yfkgf kl5 gLlh / Jofkf/Ls lx;fan] cGo PkmPd /]l8of] klg :yfkgf x'g yfn] . /fli6«o k|zf/0f P]g @)$( / /fli6«o k|zf/0f lgodfjln @)%@ df pNn]v ePsf] ;t{ cg';f/ /]l8of] k|zf/0f ubf{ ckgfpg' kg{] ljleGg zt{sf] kfngf ug'{kg{] clgjfo{ ul/Psf] lyof] . h; cGt{ut Jofkf/Ls sfo{qmd ;+rfng ug{ gkfpg], d"ntM jftfj/0fLo sfo{qmd k|j4{g ug{] lsl;dn] sfo{qmd ;+rfng ug{], s[lif, /fhgLlt, :jf:Yo, lzIff, kl/jf/ lgof]hg, lj1fg tyf k|ljlw nufotsf ;dfrf/ k|zf/0f ug{ kfO{g] lgod agfPsf] lyof] .

pkTosf aflx/sf PkmPdx?df sf7df8f}+df a;]/ /]l8of] sfo{qmd pTkfbg ug{] ;:yfx?sf] g]6js{df ;fd]n x'g] k|j[lQ a9]sf] 5 . ltgdf sDo'lgs]zg sg{/, P06]gf kmfp08];g, O{Sj]n PS;];, k|f]– klAns, OG;]s, cl:dtf, hfu/0f, ldl8of ;]G6/ nufotsf sfo{qmd pTkfbs tyf u}/;/sf/L ;+:yfsf sfo{qmd ylk“bf 5g\ . sDo'lgs]zg sg{/sf] ;dfrf/d'ns sfo{qmd …sfofs}/gÚ b}lgs $) eGbf a9L PkmPd :6]zgx?df Ps}k6s aH5 . –lxdfn va/klqsf, !^–#), kmfu'g, @)^#, ls/0f g]kfn

ef/t

ef/tnfO{ c+u|]hx?n] pklgj]z sfod u/s} ;dodf /]l8of] k|zf/0f ;]jf ;'? u/]sf] kfO{G5 . ;g\ !(@$ df la|l6z clwsf/Lx?n] zf}lvg ?kdf db|f;Lx?sf] nflu /]l8of] Snjsf] :yfkgf ug{] cg'dlt k|bfg u/]sf lyP . To;kl5 ;g\ !(@^ df Indian Radio Broadcasting Company n] d'DaO{ / sf]nsftfdf gLlh :t/df k|zf/0f ;'? u/]sf lyP . o;n] lgoldt /]l8of] k|zf/0f ;'? u/]sf] s]lx ;do ;Dd klg Toxf“ ;f}lvg /]l8of] Snj lgoldt ?kdf ;+rfng eO{/x]sf] lyof] . ;g\ !(@& df d'DaO{ / sf]nsftfdf Indian Broadcasting Company Radio sf] ;'?jft eof] h'g gLlh :t/df klxnf] /]l8of] lyof] . h;/L zf}lvg /]l8of] Snjn] ;/sf/nfO{ k|Zff/0f k|0ffnLsf] lgdf{0f ug{ afWo agfof] To;}ul/ To;sf] ;ft bzs kl5 gLh If]qsf ;+rfnsx?n] ef/tLo 6]lnlehg RofgnnfO{ klg cf+lzs ?kdf gLlhs/0f ug{ tTsflng ;/sf/nfO{ afWo t'NofPsf] lyof] .

;g\ !(#) df c+u|]h ;/sf/n] /]l8of] k|zf/0fnfO{ cfkm\gf] dftxtdf lnO{ Indian State Broadcasting Service (ISBS) sf] ?kdf gfdfs/0f u¥of] . ;g\ !(#^ df To;nfO{ cn O{l08of /]l8of] af6 cfsfzjfl0fdf kl/jt{g u¥of] . o;kl5 cf}klgj]zLs ef/t Pj+ cGo /fhzflx /fHox?, x}b/fjfb, a/f]8f, ld;f]/ cf}/+ufjfbdf ;d]t /]l8of] :6]zgx? Jofks dfqfdf :yfkgf eP . t/ a]nf a]nfdf tL /]l8of] :6]zgx?nfO{ ;/sf/ lj/f]wLx?sf] ;dy{g u/]sf] eGb} ef/t :jtGqtf k'j{ Pj+ kl5sf ;/sf/n] ;dt] tLlgx?dfly lgoGq0f sfod g} /fv] .

;g\ !(#$ df klxnf]k6s /]l8of] k|zf/0f lgoGqssf] clwsf/ kfPsf P.G Edmunds n] ;/sf/L tj/af6 ;dy{g k|fKt u/] . ef/tLo :jtGqtfsf] ;do;Dd cfO{k'Ubf Toxf“sf k|d'v zx/x? lbNnL, d'DaO{, snsQf, r]GgO{, nvgp df k|zf/0f ;]jfx? :yfkgf eO{;s]sf lyP . To;j]nfsf cf}klgj]zjfbL /fHox?df /]l8of] ;]jfn] pklgj]zjfbL ;/sf/sf] ;fdflhs / /fHo lgoGq0f ug{] rfxgfnfO{ ;xof]u u/]sf] s'/f pNn]v u/]sf 5g\ . pklgj]zjfbL /]l8of] sfo{qmdx?n] /fhgLltaf6 6f9f x'g'kg{] s'/fx?df hf]8 lb+b} cfPsf lyP . xfn ef/tdf k|zf/0f dfWodx?n] lgs} nf]slk|otf sdfPsf 5g\ . ;dfrf/ / dgf]/~hgsf If]qdf Toxf“sf /]l8of] k|Voft dflgG5g\ .

kfls:tfg

;g\ !($& df ef/t / kfls:tfg 5''l§bf …cn O{l08of /]l8of]Ú ;“u /x]sf ;Dk'0f{ ;DklQ af“8kmf“8 ul/of] . o;kl5 kfls:tfgsf] nfxf]/, 9fsf / k]zfj/df sd Ifdtffsf] /]l8of] :6]zg ;'? eof] . Ps jif{ k5fl8 tTsflng ;+l3o /fhwfgL s/f“rLn] ldl8od j]e 6«fG;ld6/ :6]zg k|fKt u¥of] . /]l8of] kfls:tfgn] ;g\ !($( df cf}krf/Ls ?kdf s/f“rLaf6 cfkm\gf] kf“rj6f afXo ;]jf ;'? u/]sf] lyof] .

;g\ !(%) df /fjnlk08L klg kfls:tfgdf k/]kl5 To;sf] Ps bzsleq x}b/fjfb, / Sof]6fdf klg /]l8of] :Yffkgf x'g k'Uof] . o;kl5 ;g\ !((% df j]glh/ e'6\6f]sf] ;/sf/n] s/f“rL nfxf]/ / O:nfdfjfbdf gLlh PkmPd /]l8of] k|zf/0f ;+rfngsf nfuL cg'dlt k|bfg u¥of] . To;a]nf ;/sf/n] e'6\6f]sf] cfkmGt / kl/jf/nfO{ dfq PkmPd /]l8of] ;+rfng ug{] cg'dlt lbPsf] elg cfnf]rgf ug{ k'u] . hgtfnfO{ hlt g} /fd|f] cfZjf;g lbPklg kfls:tfgsf ;/sf/x?n] ;}gLs sfg'gsf] kl/lwleq /lx ;f;g ;+rfng ul/Psf]n] Toxf“sf] ;+rf/ dfWod k'/} ;/sf/L lgoGq0fdf /x]sf] 5 .

/]l8of] kfls:tfg k|zf/0f ;+:yfg P]gn] ;g\ !(&# df /]l8of] kfls:tfgnfO{ Pp6f sfg'gL ;+:yfgdf kl/0ft u/]sf] lyof] . kfls:tfg k|zf/0f ;]jfsf !^ j6f ;6{j]e / @@ j6f ldl8odj]e 6«fG;ld6/ /x]sf 5g\ h;sf] s'n Ifdtf # xhf/ & ;o %@ lsnf]jf6 /x]sf] 5 . oxf“ /]l8of] k|Zff/0f ;]jf b]zsf] em08} ;Dk'0f{ :yfgx?df k'lu;s]sf] 5 .

kfls:tfgL k|zf/0f ;]jfn] ;g\ !(** df s/f“rL, nfxf]/ / O:nfdfjfbdf PkmPd /]8of] klg k|zf/0f ;'? u/]sf] 5 . t/ gLlh :t/sf PkmPd /]l8of] eg] klxn] g} :yfkgf eO{;s]sf lyP . xfn kfls:tfgsf] k]zfj/df ;a}eGbf a9L /]l8of] :6]zg :yfkgf ePsf 5g\ . ;g\ !(#^ df /]l8of] :6]zg :yfkgf ug{] lbNnL kl5 bf]>f] ;x/ k]zfj/ ag]sf] lyof] . c+u|]h ;/sf/n] /]l8of]nfO{ cfkm\gf] k|rf/ k|;f/sf] Pp6f k|d'v cËsf] ?kdf ljsf; ub{} nu]sf lyP . o;n] dgf]/~hgnfO{ sd dxTj lbGYof] . bf]>f] ljZjo'4 kl5 /]l8of] dfkm{t k|rf/ k|;f/ ug{] qmddf ltj|tf cfof] . To;j]nf o'4sf ;dfrf/k|lt cle?lr a9]sf] lyof] . To;kl5sf lbgx?df /]l8of]af6 gf6s, ;+uLt / ;flxToLs sfo{qmd klg k|zf/0f x'g ug{ yflnof] .

>Ln+sf

>Ln+sfsf] k|zf/0f skf{]/]zg cfkm\g} vr{df rNg] ;fj{hlgs ;+:yf xf] . of] ;"rgf tyf k|zf/0f dGqLsf] dftxtdf /x]sf] 5 . >Ln+sfdf klxnf] /]l8of] k|zf/0f ;g\ !(@$ h'nfO{ @& df British Government General sf] efif0faf6 z'? ePsf] xf] . ;g\ !(@$ l8;]Dj/df Government Broadcasting Station z'? ePsf] lyof] . ;g\ !(#! b]lv l;+xfnL / tfldn efiffdf klg k|zf/0f x'g yfNof] . ;g\ !(*) ;Dd Toxf“sf] /]l8of] k|zf/0fdf ;/sf/L Psflwsf/ /x]sf] lyof] .

xfn oxf“sf] /]l8of] k|zf/0fn] hgrf;f]k|lt ljz]if Wofg k'¥ofpg] vfnsf z'4 / lgikIf 9+usf cfkm\gf sfo{qmdx? k|zf/0f ub{} cfPsf] 5 . l;+xfnL, c+u|]hL / tfldn ul/ d'Vo # j6f efiffdf ;dfrf/sf j'n]l6g k|zf/0f ul/G5 . If]qLo :6]zgsf ?kdf Toxf“sf b'O{j6f /]l8of] :6]zgx? sfo{/t 5g\ . /fli6«o tyf cGt/f{li6«o ;dfrf/ j'n]l6gx? lgoldt ?kdf k|;f/0f eO{/x]sf x'G5g\ .

;/sf/åf/f ;+rflnt >Ln+sf a|f]8sfli6ª skf{]/]zgn] >Ln+sfsf] /]l8of] k|zf/0f dfyL k|e'Tj sfod u/]sf] 5 . o;n] oxf“sf] # j6} efiff -c+u]|hL, tfldn / l;Gxfnf_ df cfkm\gf ;]jfx? k|bfg ub{} cfPsf] 5 . xfn o;n] ;ftj6f u[x ;]jfx? ;d]t k|bfg ul//x]sf] 5 . l;+xfnf /fli6«o ;]jf g} oxf“sf] d'Vo ;]jfu[x xf] . cGo ;]jfx?df l;+xfnf Joj;flos ;]jf, tfldn Joj;flos ;]jf, c+u|]hL Joj;flos ;]jf, If]qLo, lzIff / v]ns'b ;]jf k|bfg ub{5 . >Ln+sfdf >Ln+sf a|f]8sfli6ª skf{]/]zgsf] ;xof]udf ;g\ !((& sf] hgjl/df @$ 306] Lakhanda ;]jfsf] ;'?jft u/]sf lyof] .

>Ln+sfnL pQ/ If]qLo s]Gb|sf] nflu Rajrata Sevaya, blIf0f If]qsf] nflu Ruhunu Sevaya / klZrd If]qsf nflu Kandurata Sevaya ;d]t u/L # j6f If]qLo k|zf/0f ;]jf /x]sf 5g\ . ^ j6f ;fd'bflos ;]jfx? Aralaganwila, Giran, Durukotte, Kotmale, Meha Illpuppallama, Jeffna / Vavuriya h:tf :yfgdf cjl:yt 5g\ . oxf“ ;g\ !(*! Dff Mehaweil ;fd'bflos /]l8of] ;'?jft ePsf] lyof] . hfkm\gf ;fd'bfoLs /]l8of] ;g\ !((& df ;'? ePsf] lyof] . >Ln+sf a|f]8sfli6ª skf{]/]zgnn] cfkm\gf affXo ;]jfsf] nflu c+u|]hL, l;Gxfnf, g]kfnL / cGo ef/lto efiffx?sf] k|of]u ub{5 . ;g\ !(*$ df ;/sf/n] k|zf/0f dfWod dflysf] cfkm\gf] Psflwsf/ x6fPkl5 gLlh If]qsf !! j6f /]l8of] k|zf/0f ;+:yfx? hlGdP .

e'6fg

e'6fgsf] k~rjlif{o of]hgfdf ePsf] d'b|0f ;DalGw Joj:yfn] Toxf“sf] k|zf/0fnfO{ klg lgb{]zLt ub{5 . Toxf“sf] k|zf/0f ;]jf Bhutan Broadcasting Service (BBS) klg ;ft ;b:oLo ;DkfbsLo af]8{k|lt pQ/bfoL /xG5 . blIf0f PlzofnL ;~rf/ ;+u7g >f]tn] hgfP cg';f/ (BBS) cfkm\gf] ;DkfbsLo gLltsf] ljsf; tyf k'g{d'NofÍg g}lts d"No :yfkgfsf] k|lqmofdf /x]sf] hgfPsf] 5 . e'6fgdf /]l8of]sf] ;'?jft ;g\ !(&@ df ePsf] xf] . h'g Amateur x?n] ;'? u/L ;ftfdf Psk6s sfo{qmd k|zf/0f ub{y] . h;sf] Ifdtf $) jf6sf] dfq lyof] .

k|zf/0f ;]jfsf] ?kdf e'6fgsf] Psdfq k|zf/0f ;+:yf Bhutan Broadcasting Service (BBS) n] ;ftfdf $ j6f leGg leGg efiffx? -hf]ª\vf, c+u|hL, g]kfnL / ;f/rf]k_ df ;6{j]e dfkm{t /fli6«o k|zf/0f ub{5 . e'6fgsf] /fhwfgL lyDk'sf] nflu dfq c+u|]hL sfo{qmdx?sf] b}lgs ;]jf k|zf/0f ug{df klg BBS n] ;jf{]Rr lgsfosf ?kdf sfd ub{} cfO{/x]sf] 5 . /]l8of] k|zf/0f ;]jf klg TolQ b|'tb/ ?kdf cuf8L a9]sf] kfO{b}g .

/fli6«o k|zf/0f ;+:yf afx]s Toxf“ s'g} klg ;fd'bflos tyf PkmPd /]l8of]x?sf] :yfkgf xfn;Dd klg x'g ;s]sf] 5}g . ;g\ !((@ df BBS n] /]l8of] k|zf/0fsf] dfu{lrq klg agfPsf] lyof] . h;df /]l8of] dfkm{t s'g} klg wd{nfO{ ckx]ngf ug{ gkfpg] Joj:yf u/]sf] lyof] . cbfntsf] ckx]ngf x'g] ;fdu|L k|zf/0f / cGo lx+;f x'g], >f]tfnfO{ cTofpg] / s'g} klg vfnsf pQ]hgfTds sfo{qmd k|zf/0f ug{ gkfpg] Joj:yf u/]sf] lyof] . b]z, /fhf / hgtfnfO{ cjd"Nog ug{ gkfpg] ljifo To;df ;+nUg ul/Psf] lyof] .

dfnlbE;

dfnlbE; 6fk' g} 6fk' ldn]/ ag]sf] b]z xf] . !!() j6f 6fk'sf] ;d'xnfO{ @^ j6f 6fk'df ;dfof]hg u/LPsf] 5 . Toxf“ kqsfl/tf tyf cfd;~rf/sf] ljsf; vf;} x'g ;s]sf] 5}g . dfnlbE;sf] /fhwfgL dfn] ;x/dfq kqklqsfsf] s]Gb|laGb' ag]sf] 5 . oxf“sf] d'n wd{ d'l:nd xf] / /fi6«klt ;'lGg ;d'bfoaf6 r'Gg] k|rng /x]sf] kfO{G5 . dfnlbE;nfO{ ;f]Xf} ztflAbdf kf]r{'ufnLx?n] pklgj]z agfpg vf]h]sf lyP . t/ c+u|]hx?sf] To; a]nfsf] zlQmn] ubf{ c+u|]hx?n] ;g\ !**& b]lv !($& ;Dd pklgj]z sfod u/]sf lyP . ;g\ !($* kl5 c+u|]h zf;sx?af6 dfnlbE; :jtGq eof] / cfkm\gf] cl:tTjdf cl3 a9\g yfNof] .

oxf“sf ;+rf/dfWodx?df sfo{qmd lgdf{0f tyf k|zf/0fsf nflu SLRC eGg] P]g hf/L ul/Psf] 5 . ;g\ !(&@ df dfnlbE;df ;j{k|yd 'Voice of Maldives' /]l8of]sf] ;'?jft eof] eg] ;g\ !(&* df dfq 6]lnlehgsf] ;'?jft ePPsf] lyof] . nfdf] ;do;Dd ljb]zL zf;sx?n] pklgj]z sfod u/]sf] dfnlbE;df la|l6z pklgj]zsfndf ;g\ !(%! Dff …cn/:tfÚ gfds k|sfzgsf] ;'?jft ePsf] kfOG5 .

a+unfb]z

;g\ !(() kl5 dfq a+unfb]zdf ljz]if k|sf/n] ljsf; x'g yfn]sf] xf] . ;g\ !($* ;Dd 9fsf /]l8of] :6]zgn] Pp6f ;fwf/0f vfnsf] ef8fdf ejg lnP/ sdhf]/ cfly{s >f]td} ;+rfng ug{ yfNof] . kfls:tfgsf] Pp6f efusf] ?kdf /x]sf] a+unfb]zdf kfls:tfgn] /]l8of] :6]zg :yfkgfdf Tolt k|fyldstf lbPsf] lyPg . ;g\ !(%( / !(^# sf] lardf dfq ! ;o lsnf]jf6sf] ldl8od j]e / ! xhf/ jf6sf] ;6{j]esf] 6«fG;ld6/sf] :yfkgf ul/of] .

;/sf/n] ;g\ !(%$ / !(&! sf] lardf lrqh+u, /fhzflx, /+uk'/ / v'ngfdf l/n] :6]zg :yfkgf u¥of] . s“/flraf6 k|zf/0f x'g] /fli6«o k|zf/0f / ljt/0f afx]ssf cGo s'/fx? ug{ k"lj{ kfls:tfg /]l8of] g]6js{ k|Zff/0f ;+:yfsf] ?kdf /x]sf] lyof] . ;g\ !(&! Dff ePsf] d'lQm cfGbf]ngn] ubf{ ;Dk'0f{ k|zf/0f ;+oGqsf] ljgf; eof] . kfls:tfgsf k|zf/0fsf] ;'?jft ePb]lv g} a+unfb]zdf k|zf/0f dfWoddfly ;/sf/L jr{Zj sfod g} /x\of] . ;g\ !(^% ;Dd o; /]l8of] ;]jfn] b]zsf] s'n (% k|ltzt e'efu / hg;+VofnfO{ cfu]6]sf] lyof] . ;g\ !(&% sf] h'g df j]tj'lgof eGg] :yfgdf Sofg8]nL cGt/f{li6«o ljsf; ;+:yfsf] ;xof]udf *) nfv cd]l/sL 8n/sf] nfutdf Ps e'–pku|x :yfkgf x'g k'Uof] .

a+unfb]z ;/sf/n] /]l8of] dfyL k"0f{ ?kn] lgoGq0f u/]sf] 5 . ;"rgf dGqfnon] k|zf/0fstf{x?sf nflu s]lx lgb{]zg ug{] / cgf}krf/Ls tl/sfn] ltlgx?sf] /]vb]v ug{] ub{5 . sfo{qmd lgb{]zssf] g]t[Tjdf ;]G;/l;k ;ldltn] ljb]zL rnlrqnfO{ k'/} x]/]/ k|zf/0fsf nflu dfq cg'dlt lbg] jf glbg] eGg] lg0f{o ub{5 . ;/sf/sf :jfldTjdf /x]sf a+unfb]zsf /]l8of]n] ;Gt'lnt ;dfrf/ pknAw u/fp“b}gg\ . k|wfgdGqL Pj+ cGo bnsf dGqLx?sf] af/]df Toxf“sf /]l8of]n] d'Vo ;do latfpg] u5{g . ljkIfL bnsf] ;dfrf/n] Toxf“sf] /]l8of]df sd} :yfg kfp“5g\ .

ckmuflg:tfg

ljleGg vfnsf ;fd'bfoLs ljsf; ultljlw, a9\bf] cfly{s gLlt, ljleGg gLlt lgod nufotsf dxTjk'0f{ p2]Zo k'/f ug{sf nflu ckmuflg:tfgsf /]l8of] nflu dxTk'0f{ kIf x'g\ . ;fgf ;fgf /]l8of] :6]zgn] ;d'bfodf /x]/ sfd ug{]n] klg ;/sf/sf] bjfjdf sfd ug{'kg{] cj:yf /x]sf] lyof] . ljleGg k|sf/sf bjfjsf sf/0f ckmuflg:tfgsf /]l8of]nfO{ klg ljefhg u/LPsf] lyof] .

Independent local stations, Internews, Impacs, Sayara h:tf ;+:yfn] ;+rfng ljleGg /]l8of] :6]zg ;~rfng u/]sf lyP . ;d'bfodf lt :6]zgx?n] lgs} k|efj kf/]sf lyP . ltlgx?sf] hgdfg;df /fd|f] ;DaGw /x]sf] lyof] . t}klg lt /]l8of] :6]zgx?n] k|zf;lgs tyf cfly{s wDsL kfO{/x]sf x'Gy] . s'g} s'g} /]l8of] :6]zgx? cfly{s ?kdf cfkm} ;Ifd lyPgg\ . Arman h:tf 7'nf 7'nf Joj;foLs /]l8of] :6]zgx? klg ;+rfngdf lyP / lt :6]zgx?n] /fd|f] cfDbfgL ug{ ;kmn ePsf lyP . Arman /]l8of] :6]zgn] /fli6«o :t/df /x]/ k|zf/0f u/L hlt;Sbf] w]/} >f]tfdfem k'Ug ;kmn ePsf] lyof] .

;/sf/L /]l8of] :6]zgx? ljleGg If]qdf cfkm\gf] kx'“r k'¥ofpg] / cfkm\gf] p2]Zo k'/f ug{s nflu x/;Dej k|of;/t /x]sf lyP . Micro-radio stations x?n] ;fgf ;fgf ;d'bfodf /x]/ cGo 7'nf 7'nf ;+:yfx?;“usf] ;xsfo{df ;kmntf kfPsf lyP . kqsfl/tf tyf ;fd'bflos ljsf;sf] cg'ej tyf ahf/df lj1fkgsf] kx'“rn] klg lt /]l8of]sf] ljsf;df ;xof]u k'¥ofPsf] lyof] . International radio stations x? h:t} BBC, VOA, DW n] ckmuflg:tfgdf ;6{j]eesf] dfWodaf6 tyf ltlgx?n] ;+rfng u/]sf] PkmPd k|zf/0fn] cGt/f{li6«o ;fdu|Lx? bf]xf]¥ofP/ k|zf/0f ug{] u5{g .

sl/a $ dlxgf cl3 dfq Ajmal Naqshbandi eGg] :jtGq kqsf/nfO{ Taliban commander Mullah Dadallah n] xTof u/]kl5 Toxf“sf kqsf/n] ;/sf/ ;dIf ;'/Iffsf] dfu u/]sf lyP . ljleGg lzlIft o'jfx?sf] ;+nUgtfdf cfkm\gf] kIfdf sfd ug{sf nflu /]l8of] k|zf/0f u/]sf lyP . TotLv]/ g} @ hgf dlxnf kqsf/sf] ljb|f]xL ;d'xn] xTof u/]kl5 o'jf kqsf/sf] dg czfGt ePsf] lyof] . ckmuflg:tfgdf dlxnfx? ;fdflhs tyf kfl/jfl/s b'j}af6 kLl8t ePsf 5g\ . kl5Nnf] k6s #) d] @))& df Shekeba Saanga Aamaj nfO{ cfkm\g} kl/jf/sf] cuf8L xTof x'“bf pgsf] kl/jf/n] xTof/f kQf nufpg] tkm{ s'g} sbd rfNg ;s]sf] lyPg .

;g\ @))^ sf] ckmuflg:tfgsf] lk|m8d xfp;sf] l/kf{]6 cWoog ug{] xf] eg] Toxf“sf] k|];sf] cj:yf Partly Free cj:yfdf /x]sf] 5 . @))% sf] l8;]Da/df ckmuflg:tfgdf gof“ ;/sf/ / k|hftflGqs ;+;bsf] :yfkgf ePkl5 ;/sf/L ;+oGqn] sfd ug{ yfn]sf] xf] . ljb|f]xL tflnjfgåf/f cfTd3flt xdnf / cGo ;/sf/ lj/f]wL sfo{n] jfwf k'¥ofPsf] lyof] . d'hflxl2gn] sDo'lgi6 ;/sf/nfO{ x6fP/ ;g\ !((@ df sfa'nnfO{ cfkm\gf] lgoGq0fdf lng] k|of; u/]sf] lyof] . ;g\ @))! df tflnjfgaf6 cft+ssf/L xdnf ePkl5 cd]l/sfn] To;nfO{ lgoGq0f ug{sf nflu ;}Go kl/rfng u/]sf] lyof] . o;/L cd]/Lsfsf] xdnfkl5 Toxf“sf /]l8of]nfO{ Iflt k'Ug uof] . kl5Nnf] ;dodf cfP/ dfq k'g ljsf;sf] kfO{nf rfNg yfn]sf] cj:yf ckmuflg:tfgdf /x]sf] 5 .

lgisif{M

kqsfl/tfsf] cfwf/df x]bf{ s'g}klg ;dfhsf] ljsf;sf] nflu ;+rf/ Ps dxTjk"0f{ dfWodsf] ?kdf lng'kb{5 . ;+rf/sf] ljsf;sf] sf/0f ;+;f/nfO{ Pp6f sf]7fdf NofP/ ;fF3'¥ofPsf] 5 . k|ljlw;“u} cfuf8L a9]sf] /]l8of] kqsfl/tf hut cfh ;+;f/nfO{ Ps Global Village sf] ?kdf ljsf; ug{ ;xof]u k'¥ofPsf] dfq xf]O{g sL dflg;df r]tgfsf] ljsf;df klg ;xof]u k'¥ofPsf] 5 . o;} tYonfO{ phfu/ ub{} dfgj ;dfhdf r]tgfsf] ljsf; x'g ;Dej ePsf] xf] .

;+rf/ cj olt zlQmzfln dfWodsf] ?kdf ljsf; ePsf] 5 sL cfh ljZjnfO{ g} Pp6f ;fgf] ufp“df kl/0ft ul/lbPsf] 5 eg] k|zf/0f dfWodsf] b[li6sf]0fn] cWoog ug{] xf] eg] emg} dxTj kfPsf] 5 . ljZj cy{tGqdf b]lvPsf] ptf/r9fj tyf u/La / wgL jLrsf] ju{ ljrsf] n8fO{ ;fy} ;"rgf k|ljlwsf] If]qdf ePsf] qmfGtLsf/L kl/jt{gsf] sf/0f dflg;nfO{ cfˆgf] af/]df dfq rf;f] ghfuL c?sf] af/]df klg hfGg] rfxgf ltj| ?kdf a9\g yfNof] . Ps :yfgdf hfgfsf/L ePsf] vj/ t'?Gt} csf{] kIfnfO{ 5f]6f] ;dosf] cGt/d} hfGg ;kmn x'g yflnPsf] 5 . of] ;a} k|ljlw tyf dflg;df ePsf] r]tgfsf] k|efjsf] sf/0f dfGg}kg{] ;do ePsf] 5 .

k|yd tyf bf]>f] ljZjo'4sf] sf/0f Psy/L /fi6«x? ghflgbf] lsl;daf6 Pp6f df]rf{df ufleg yfn] eg] csf{y/L /fi6«x? Ps csf{sf s§/ b'idgsf] ?kdf b]vf k/] . csf]{tkm{ o'4sf sf/0f tx; gx; ePsf ljleGg /fi6«n] ljsf;sf] kfO{nf cuf8L ;f/]sf] 5 . kl5Nnf] ;dodf cfP/ ckmuflg:tfg Pp6f pbfx/0f ag]sf] 5 . ljb|f]xL ;d'xåf/f ePsf ljleGg vfnsf cfqmd0fsf sf/0f Toxf“sf] ;+rf/ dfWoddf Iflt k'Ug uof] . xfn cfP/ aNn s]lx ljsf;sf] kfO{nf cuf8L cfPsf 5g\ .

g]kfnsf] ;Gb{edf klg /fhfsf] zflxsfn kl5 ljleGg /]l8of] :6]zg dfyL sAhf ug{] qmd a9\b} uof] . ;f]xL ;dod} ;/sf/L ;+rf/ dfWodsf] ?kdf /x]sf] /]l8of] g]kfnnfO{ klg ;/sf/L d'vkqsf] ?kdf ljsf; ul/Psf] lyof] . ;/sf/sf] /f]sfj6sf sf/0f PkmPd df ;dfrf/ k|zf/0f aGb ug{] sfo{ ;d]t eP . tyfkL b]zdf k'g cfGbf]ng kl5 km]/L Psk6s ljleGg PkmPd :6]zg v'Ng] qmd x\jfQ} a9]sf] 5 .

s'g} klg d'n'sdf k|]; / /fhgLltsf] ulx/sf] ;DaGw /x]sf] :ki6 5 . !(%* ;fndf /f0ffx?n] hf/L u/]sf] ;bg\ xf];\ jf @)^! Df /fhf 1fg]Gb|n] ;Qf xftdf lnPkl5 hf/L u/]sf] k|]; P]g xf];\ h;n] k|];nfO{ cfkm\gf] cg's'n lx“8fpg] lsl;daf6 JofVof u/]sf] kfOG5 . k|To]s 7'nf–7'nf /fhgLlts kl/jt{g;“u} k|]; sfg"gdf klg cfd"n kl/jt{g ePsf 5g\ . To;}sf] jfjh't ljleGg ;+rf/ dfWodn] ljsf; x'g] jf gx'g] eGg] df}sf kfpg] x'g\ .

lj=;= !(%* df b]jzdz]/n] hfl/ u/]sf] ;gb\ af6 ;'? ePsf] g]kfnsf] k|]; sfg"gn] @)^$ ;fn;Dd cfOk'Ubf cg]s vfnsf afwf Jojwfg kf/ ub{} cGt/f{li6«o d"No / dfGotf cg'?k cufl9 a9\g yfn]sf] 5 . ljleGg vfnsf cfb]z, Ohfht, lgoGq0f ug{] P]g sfg"g tyf cWofb]zn] k|];dfly lgoGq0f ug{ vf]h]klg pbf/jflb ;f]r, ljZjdf ePsf ljsf; / kl/jt{gn] ubf{ g]kfnnfO klg c5'tf] 5f]8]g . kmn:j?k hgtfn] k|]; :jtGqtfsf] kIfdf cfkm\gf] dt hfx]/ u/]/ z;Qm ?kdf k|hftGqsf] kIfdf n8]kl5 ;";'lrt x'g] clwsf/ kfKt ePsf] cg'e"lt ePsf] 5 .

/]l8of] k|zf/0fdf …;6}j]e / ldl8od j]eÚ Aof08sf] t'ngfdf lgs} ;:tf] PkmPd Aof08 :yfgLo:t/df a9L pkof]uL ePsf] ;+;f/el/sf] cg'ej /x]sf] 5 . g]kfndf PkmPd /]l8of] ;'? ubf{ klg olx dfGotfnfO{ cjnDag ul/Psf] lyof] . o;} cg';f/ ;'?df PkmPd tyf ;fd'bflos /]l8of]nfO{ ;'? ubf{ ! ;o / % ;o jf6 Ifdtfsf] cg'dlt lbOPsf] lyof] . k|:t'ltdf km/s /x]klg b'j} PkmPdsf k|zf/0f :yfgLo cfjZostfd} s]GbLt /x]sf lyP . km/s oltdfq lyof] sL ;fd'bflos PkmPdn] lbg] dgf]/~hgfTds ;fdu|Ldf nf]s bf]xf]/L lut kb{y] eg] Joj;foLs PkmPdn] lbg]df kk ky{] .

gLltut c:ki6tfsf sf/0f kl5Nnf] ;dodf clwsf+z PkmPdaf6 :yfgLotfsf] kl/ro x/fp“b} uPsf] 5 . ljleGg :yfgsf nflu PkmPdsf] cg'dlt lnP/ Pp6} lk|mSj]G;Laf6 s]lGb|s[t k|zf/0f ub{} cfPsf Joj;foLs PkmPdx?df o;}klg :yfgLot lyPg, To;afx]s c? PkmPdn] ;dfrf/ tyf sfo{qmd eg]/ s]Gb|Ls sfo{qmd g} ahfpg yfn]kl5 ltgsf] klg :yfgLo kl/ro u'Db} uPsf] 5 . k|zf/0f Ifdtfdf lj:tf/ / /fli6«o :t/sf ljifox? g} ;Gbe{ ;fdu|L aGg hf“bf clxn];Dd :yfgLo ljifo, efiff / >f]tsf] ;xeflutfsf ;fy uf“puf“pdf kl/jt{gsf] ;+afxs aGg /]l8of] ;kmn ePsf 5g\ . g]kfnsf] ;Gbe{df e};L x/fPsf] ;"rgf ;d]t k|zf/0f ul/“bf :yfgLoafl;x?sf] dg lhTg ;kmn ePsf] PkmPd /]l8of]x?df casf lbgdf To:tfvfn] ;"rgfn] :yfg gkfpg] x'g\ ls eGg] efg g]kfnL hgdfg;df k/]sf] 5 .

;Gbe{–;fdu|L

–sf]O{/fnf, cRo'tjfj', @)^), -k|yd ;+:s/0f_–…kqsfl/tfsf] ljZj O{ltxf;Ú sf7df8f}+, h]=s]=hL a'S; P08 :6]zg/L

–rfln;,] ljho–@)%!, ;dfrf/ ;+sng tyf ;Dkfbg, sf7df8f}+, ;[li6 k|sfzg

–b]jsf]6f, u[idaxfb'/–@)%( -t]>f] ;+:s/0f_ g]kfnsf] 5fkfvfgf / kqklqsfsf] Oltxf;, nlntk'/, ;femf k|sfzg

– g]kfn, ls/0f , lxdfn va/klqsf, !^–#), kmfu'g, @)^#,

–k|]; sfplG;n–@)%%, g]kfnL kqsfl/tfsf] ljsf;qmd, sf7df8f}+, k|]; sfplG;n

–k|]; :jtGqtf, nf]stGqsf] Ps jif{, g]kfn kqsf/ dxf;+3, d] #, @))&, ljZj k|]; :jtGqtfsf cj;/df k|sflzt k':ts,

–/]UdL, lzj–@)%# -l4tLo ;+:s/0f_ …g]kfndf kqsfl/tfsf] ljsf;Ú– kqsfl/tf xft] lstfj, g]kfn k|]; OlG:6Ro"6, nlntk'/, g]kfn k|]; OlG:6Ro"6

–zdf{, k~rk|;fb, nfld5fg], slkn, e';fn, Clif/fd–@)%# -låtLo ;+:s/0f_– kqsfl/tfsf] ?k/]vf– sf7df8f}+ , ljBfyL{ k':ts e08f/

www.internews.org

http://www.nai.org.af/Radioassociation.htm

Media Watch Report, Afghanistan Journalism Freedom Report # 25, ‘Sediqullah Tawhidi

Private/Commercial Radio

Radio

ljB'lto t/Ëaf6 k|zf/0f x'g] ;dfrf/, ;Gb]z ;+uLt tyf ljljw hfgsf/L nufotsf s'/fx? k|jfx ug{] ;+rf/ dfWodnfO{ Radio elgG5 . 5fkfdfWodsf] lj:tf/ o"/f]kdf Aofks?kdf eO/xbf ;+rf/hutdf csf]{ cfofd ylkof] . Tof] xf] ;~rf/dfWodsf] ?kdf /]l8of]sf] cfljisf/ eP/ .

/]8of]sf] Oltxf;nfO{ x]bf{ ;g !(*% df O6fnLsf U. Marconi n] ljB'lto r'Djssf] t/Ëaf6 ljZjd} klxnf] k6s ljgf tf/ /]l8of] ;+s]t ;Dk|]if0f ug{ ;kmn ePsf lyP . ;g\ !()! df /]8of] t/Ësf] kl/If0f ;kmn ePkl5 ljlwjt?kdf /]l8of]sf] z'?jft eof] . ;g !()^ df cfGb|dxf;fu/df Voice Transmission eof] . To;a]nf hxfhdf cfjfh ;'lgPsf] lyof] elgG5 . Spark Transmitter sf] k|of]uaf6 jfo'd08ndf t/Ë k7fOGYof] .

To;kl5 /]l8of]sf] cfljisf/df w]/} k|of]u / gofF–gofF k|ljlwnfO{ c+ufNb} uO{of] . klxnf] ljZj o'4 ;g !(!$–!* ;Dddf /]l8of]nfO{ /fd|f];+u k|of]u ul/of] . To;tfsf /]l8of]nfO{ ljsl;t /fi6«x?n] zq' lj?4 unt ;"rgf ;Dk|]if0f ug{], k|rf/jfhL ug{] cyjf k|f]kf]uf08f-Propoganda_ km}nfpg] sfdsf cTolws k|of]u u/]sf lyP .

Private Radio

/]l8of]sf] k|of]u cf–cfkm\gf] tl/sfn] x'Fb} hfFbf ;g !(@) Nov-2 sf lbg cd]l/sfdf lgoldt /]l8of] k|zf/0f ul/of] . ;g !(@) df Owen D. Young n] Radio Corporation of America sf] z'?jft u/] . o;}nfO{ kl5 KDKA gfdfs/0f ul/of] elgG5 . of] America sf] k]G;e]lgofdf clxn] klg cjl:yt 5 . November -2 sf lbg Frank Conrad / Donad Little n] /ftL * ah] b]lv dWo/ft;Dd lgjf{rg kl/0ffdsf] k|ToIf k|;f/0f u/] .

/]l8of]sf] lgoldt z'?jft / Private Radio sf] z'?jftnfO{ ;+u;+u} lnP/ hfg ;lsG5 . t/ slt Commercial aGg ;s] Tof] eg] ljZn]if0fsf] ljifo aGg ;S5 .

/]l8of] k|;f/0fsf] Oltxf;nfO{ x]bf{ blIf0f Pl;ofnL /fi6«x?df c+u|]hsf] pklgj]z k/]sf] x'gfn] l56f] ljsf; ePsf] b]lvG5 . ;g\ !(@$ df ef/tdf zf}lvg Radio Club sf] :yfkgf ;+u} /]l8of] k|zf/0f ePsf] kfO{G5 . >Ln+sfdf klg olx ;dotfsf /]l8of] k|zf/0f z'? ePsf] lyof] . ef/tdf Indian Broadcasting Corporation sf] :yfkgfaf6 lghL :jfldTjdf k|zf/0f eO/x]sf] /]l8of]nfO{ ;g\ !(#^ b]lv ;/sf/L :jfldTjdf NofO{ All India Radio gfdfs/0f ul/of] . bf]>f] ljZj o'4 cfOk'Ubf ;Dd /]l8of]sf] Jofks k|of]u / ljsf; ePsf] kfOG5 .

x'g t ;g\ !(## df FM (Frequency Modulation) k|0ffnLsf] ljsf; ePkl5 /]l8of] k|zf/0f If]q cem km/flsnf] eof] . Edwin Armstrong n] k|ltkfbg u/]sf] FM k|ljlw ;g\ !($) b]lv k"0f{ ?kdf pkof]udf NofO{Psf] lyof] .

;g\ !(*) b]lv Digital Sound System / Satellite k|ljlwsf ljsf;sf sf/0f 5f]6f] ;dodf 7"nf] If]q cf]u6\g ;Sg] tyf u'0f:t/df ;d]t pNn]Vo ljsf; eof] .

g]kfndf Private Radio

g]kfnsf] /]l8of]sf] ljsf;nfO{ x]bf{ %& aif{ cuf8Lsf] /]l8of] g]kfndf k'Ug'k5{ . @))& ;fn r}q @) ut] :yfkgf ePsf] /]l8of] k"0f{ ?kdf ;/sf/L /]l8of] xf] .

;/sf/L /]l8of]n] Ps5q /fh ul//x]sf] nfdf] ;do kl5 Private Radio klg cfpg'k5{ eg]/ cfjfh p7\g yfNof] . “/fli6«o ;~rf/ gLlt – @)$(” cfof] . o;df ;~rf/dfWodnfO{ lqmoflzn t'Nofpgsf nflu k|zf/0f P]g cGt{ut /xL lghL If]qsf ;+u7Lt ;+:yfnfO{ klg lglZrt If]qdf FM k|zf/0f k|0ffnL :yfkgf u/L lzIffk|b / dgf]/~hgfTds sfo{qmd k|zf/0f ug{ lbg] Joj:yf u¥of] . /fli6«o k|zf/0f P]g – @)$( sf] bkmf % / ^ n] qmdzM FM k|zf/0f k|0fnLsf] :yfkgf u/L lzIffk|b, dgf]/~hgfTds tyf ;dfrf/d"ns sfo{qmd k|zf/0f ug{ rfxg] JolQm jf ;+ul7t ;+:yfn] tf]lsPsf] b:t'/ ;lxt tf]lsPsf] 9fFrfdf ;/sf/;+u lgj]bg lbg'kg{], / lgj]bgdf cfjZos hfFrj'em u/L sfo{qmd k|zf/0f ug{ tf]lsPsf] 9fFrfdf Ohfht kq lbg ;Sg] 5 eGg] :ki6 AofVof ul/Psf] 5 . o; P]gsf] bkmf – !% df lj1fkg ;DjlGw Joj:yf u/]sf] 5 .

oL b'O{j6f gLlt / P]g cfPtf klg ;xh jftfj/0f gePsf sf/0f gLlt:t/sf /]l8of] cfpg ;s]gg\ .

o hj /fli6«o k|zf/0f lgodfjnL – @)%@ cfof] tj Private Sector af6 /]l8of] sf] cg'dlt lngsf nflu af6f] v'Nof] .

o %@ ;fndf g} /]l8of] g]kfnn] g} !)) d]3fxh{df klxnf] FM rnfof] .

o @)%$ h]7 % ut] blIf0f Pl;ofs} klxnf] ;fd"bflos /]l8of] ;u/dfyf FM z'? eof] .

o @)%% ;fndf sflGtk'/, Od]h FM z'? eP .

o @)%^ ;fndf d]6«f] FM z'? eof] .

o;/L PkmPdx? w]/}dfqfdf v'Nb} cfP .

Private Radio sf] jf9L

@)%@ ;fnb]lv ;+rfngdf cfPsf Pkm=Pd= /]l8of]n] klg !@ aif{sf] cjlw kf/ ul/ ;s]sf] 5 . o; cjlw;Dd cfOk'Ubf Pkm=Pd= /]l8of]n] clw/fHosf d'Vo zx/df cfˆgf] kx'Fr lj:tf/ ug{ ;kmn ePsf] 5 . ;"rgf tyf ;~rf/ dGqfnosf] kl5Nnf] tYof+s x]bf{ g]kfndf @)$ j6f Pkm=Pd= /]l8of] btf{ eO{;s]sf 5g\ tL dWo] ^* j6fn] lgoldt ?kdf ;]jf ;~rfng ul//x]sf 5g\ . sf7df08f}+ pkTosfdf dfq @@ j6f Pkm=Pd= ;~rfng 5g\ . o;/L x]bf{ Private Radio sf] jf9L g} b]lvG5 . x'g t kl5Nnf] ;dodf Private Radio eGbf klg ;fd'bflos /]l8of] ;+rfngdf pT;fxhgs rf;f] b]lvPsf] 5 . clxn] k|To]s lhNnfdf h;f] PkmPdx? ;+rfngdf 5g\ . pkTosf aflx/sf s]lx d'Vo zx/df eg] k|lt:kwf{sf?kdf w]/} PkmPdx? rNg yfln;s]sf 5g\ .

Private Radio sf] cj:yf

hj g]kfndf Private Radio btf{ eP/ cfˆgf] sfd z'? ug{ yfn] tj b]lv lolgx? Commercial x'Fb} uP . lglZrt ?kdf gfkmf sdfpg] p2]Zon] /]l8of] :yfkgf ePsf 5g\ . g]kfn h:tf] ;fgf] /fi6«df Commercial Radio sf] 7"nf] Market b]lvb}g . t/ klg 7'nf 7'nf ;+rf/ u[xx?n] cfkm\gf] ;]jf a9fpgsf nflu /]l8of] ;+rfngdf NofPsf 5g\ . h:t}M sflGtk'/n] sflGtk'/ PkmPd, Od]h Rofgnn] Od]h PkmPd /fd|f] u/]/ g} rnfPsf 5g\ . cGo Private RadiodfM

– g]kfn PkmPd

– uf]vf{ PkmPd

– /]l8of] ;u/dfyf

– lx6\; PkmPd

– Snfl;s PkmPd

– Prla;L PkmPd

– :6f/ PkmPd

– d]6«f] PkmPd cflb d'Vo /x]sf 5g\ .

clxn] w]/} Private FM ;+rfngdf cfO/x]sf 5g\ t/ Commercial slt aGg ;S5g\ Tof] eg] ef]lnsf lbgn] b]vfpg] 5 . x'g t /]l8of]x? Commercial x'g g;s]/ g} clxn] ;fd"bflos /]l8of] wdfwd v'ln/x]sf x'g\ eGbf km/s gknf{ .

d'Vo cfwf/ M–

lj1fkg M– d"nd]?b08 g} xf]

;do lalqm M– sfo{qmdnfO{ ;do lbP/ k};f lng]

Commercial Radio / cGodf s] km/s 5 ?

k|s[lt ;/sf/L ;fd"bflos Jofkfl/s

cjwf/0ff kbLo ;xeflutfd"ns jhf/d"lv

:jfldTj ;/sf/L ;fd"lxs lglh

>f]tf lglZqmo ;lqmo :j5Gb

pQ/bfloTj zf;sk|lt ;dfhk|lt dflnsk|lt

z}nL cf}krfl/s :jefles agfj6L

nIo v/f] k|rf/jfhL ;fd"lxs sNof0f gfkmf cfh{g

>f]t M /3' d}gfnLsf] /]l8of] arg

lgisif{ M–

/]l8of] ;~rf/sf] ;j} eGbf ;lhnf] dfWod xf] . cem kl5Nnf] ;dodf o;nfO{ Jofkfl/s eGbf klg ;fd"bflos agfpg al9 hf]8 lbPsf] b]lvG5 . g]kfn h:tf] cNk ljsl;t /fi6«df ;fd"bflos /]l8of]sf] dxTj cfjZos ePs} sf/0fn] Jofkfl/s /]l8of]n] Tolt ahf/ kfpg g;s]sf] . o;sf] dtnj of] xf]O{g sL g]kfndf Jofkfl/s /]l8of]sf] eljio g} 5}g . cjZo klg /fhwfgLsf s]xL PkmPd h:t} sflGtk'/ Pkm=Pkm=Prlj;L Pkm=Pkm= x?n] /fd|} cj:yfdf rNg ;s]sf 5g\ t/ klg ;fgf] ahf/, bIf hgzlQmsf] cefj, clg Joj;flos ;f]rsf] cefjn] cem} Commercial Radio x?n] ;f]r]h:tf] :yfg lng ;s]sf 5}gg\ . /fhwfgL aflx/ v'n]sf PkmPdx? ;fd'bflos eP/ g} w]/} h;f] ;+rfngdf cfPsf 5g\ .

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! sf]O/fnf ef/tbQ -sfo{sf/L lgb]{zs_, @)%! kqsfl/tf xft] lstfj, sf8df08f}, g]kfn k|]; OlG:6Ro"6

@ vgfn lr/~hLjL, v/]n k/z'/fd, /fO{ nfnb]p;f @)%% g]kfnL kqsfl/tf Joj:yf / Jojxf/, kqsfl/tf ljefu lq lj / Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung .

# sf]O/fnf 8f= cRo'tafa', @)^), kqsfl/tfsf] ljZj Oltxf;, sf7df8f}+, h]=s]=hL a'S; P08 :6]zg/L

$ b]jsf]6f u[idaxfb'/, -t];|f] ;+:s/0f, @)%(_, g]kfnsf] 5fkfvfgf / kqklqsfsf] Oltxf;, sf7df8f}+, ;femf k|sfzg

% /fO{ nfnb]p;f, v/]n k/z'/fd / vgfn lr/~hLjL, @)%%, sf7df8f}+, g]kfnL kqsfl/tf Joj:yf / Jojxf/, kqsfl/tf ljefu lq= lj / k|m]8l/s Oj6{ :6Lkm6'ªu -PkmOP;_

^= d}gfnL /3', @)%(, /]l8of] jrg, ;fd"bflos /]l8of] ;xof]u / g]kfn jftfj/0f kqsf/ ;d"x

&= kf]v/]n k|jn/fh,@)%!, kqsfl/tfsf] ;fdfGo kl/ro

Radio as a Communication Tools after 2nd World War

–t]h axfb'/ /fO{

!= cWoogsf] k[i7e"ld / dxTjM

cfd ;+rf/sf] Oltxf;sf] ljleGg r/)f kf/ u/]/ xfnsf] cTofw'lgs cj:yf;Dd cfOk'Ug /]l*of]n] w]/} kN^ sf“r'nL km]/]sf] % / /]l*of]n] cfkm"nfO{ ;zQm ;+rf/ dfWodsf] ?kdf :yflkt klg u/]sf] % . clxn] ljZjJofkL ;+rf/sf] dfWod aGg ;kmn ePsf] % / ;+;f/sf kf“r} dxfb]z nufot cGt/LIf;DdnfO{ cfkm\gf] kx'“rleq ;d]^\g ;kmn ePsf] % .

k|f/Dedf /]l*of] ;dfrf/ k|;f/)fsf] Ps dfWodsf] ?kdf dfq lyof] eg] cfh ;Dk")f{ AolQmsf] cleAolQm;“u uf“l;Psf] % . ;+;f/nfO{ ;lhn} hf]*\g ;Sg] kqsfl/tfsf] cleGg c·sf] ?kdf :yflkt ePsf] % . Pp^f ;fdfGo JolQmsf] b"#{^gfsf] ;dfrf/b]lv rGb| w/ftndf s] e} /x]% ;f] s'/fsf] hfgsf/L If)fe/d} k|;f/)f ug{ /]l*of]n] ;s]sf] % .

o;/L dfgj ;Eotfsf] x/]s k|x/df /]l*of]sf] ckf/ dxTj % . ;fy;fy} clxn]sf] ljZj kl/k|]Iodf /]l*of]sf] cfjZostf klg lbgfg'lbg a(\b} uO /x]sf] % .

z'?sf bzsx?df /]l*of]n] %fkf dfWod;“u dfq} k|lt:kwf{ ug'{ k/]tf klg clxn] ^]lnlehg;“u klg k|lt:kwf{ ug'{k/]sf] % t/ o;n] /]l*of]sf] nf]slk|otfnfO{ #^\g lbPsf] %}g\ .

klxnf] ljZj o'$kl% /]l*of]nfO{ n*fO“ lhTg], ljkIfsf] dgf]an lu/fpg] ckmjfx-propaganda) sf] ?kdf / sltko ljsl;n /fi^|sf ;]gf nufot ;'/Iff lgsfon] cfkm\gf] cfGtl/s ;+rf/ cfbfg•k|bfg ug{ e/kbf]{ ;fwgsf] ?kdf pkof]u ul/P klg To; kl%sf bzsx?df tfhf #^\gf, ;dfrf/, dgf]/œhg, z}lIfs sfo{qmd k|;f/)f ug]{ ;+oGqsf] ?kdf a(L s]lGb|t ePsf] kfOG% . /]l*of] ;]^ ;:tf] / To;af^ k|;fl/t sfo{qmdx?n] dflg;sf] dgnfO{ %'g] x'gfn] /]l*of]nfO{ ;+rf/sf cGo dfWodx?n] lj:yfkg ug{ ;s]sf %}gg\ . o;nfO{ /]l*of]sf] ljz]iftf / dxŒjsf] ?kdf lng ;lsG% .

k|hftflGqs b]zdf ;dfrf/sf] cToGt &"nf] of]ubfg x'G% . ;To, tYo / lgZkIf ;dfrf/n] gful/ssf df}lns clwsf/nfO{ ;';"lrt ug{ ^]jf k'¥ofp“% . o;y{ /]l*of]n] ;dfh ;]jfsf] ?kdf tL sfo{x? ;lbof}+b]lv ub}{ cfO/x]sf] x'“bf gful/sx?sf] kx/]bf/sf] cu'jf dflgG% .

bf]>f] ljZjo'$df ;+;f/el/sf sltko b]z / Toxf“ a;f]jf; ug]{ gful/sx?n] cfkm\gf] /fi^|, wg, hg / ;lx ;"rgf yfxf kfpg] clwsf/ klg u'dfP . o;y{ ;f] s'/fnfO{ cfTd;ft\ ub}{ ;g\ 1948 l*;]Dj/ 10 df o'$df lht]sf, o'$df xf/]sf / st} k§L gnflu t^:y b]zx?sf] ;Dd]ngn] ;+o'Qm /fi^| ;+#sf] cfjZostf cf}Nofof] / h]g]efdf a;]/ ljZjJofkL dfGotfdf x:tfIf/ u¥of] . To; ;Dd]ngn] x/]s JolQmsf :jtGqtfnfO{ ljz]if hf]* lbof] h;df ;dfrf/ ;'Gg kfpg] s'/fsf] klg :ki^ AofVof u¥of] . pQm lg)f{o g+= 217, wf/f ” 19 sf] pkwf/f 1, 2, 3 df pNn]v ePsf dfGotfnfO{ clxn];Dd klg ;dfrf/ u|x)f ug{ kfpg] clwsf/sf] ?kdf x]l/G% .

o; cWofodf /]l*of]sf] k[i&e"ld / dxŒjsf] af/]df yf]/} pNn]v ul/Psf] % . bf];|f] cWofodf /]l*of]sf] cfljisf/nfO{ k|:t't ul/Psf] % / t];|f] cWofodf ljZj o'$ cl# /]l*of]sf] pkof]u ;sf/fTds jf gsf/fTds l:yltsf af/]df ;ldIff ug{ sf]lzz ul/Psf] % eg] ;fs{ /fi^|sf /]l*of]sf] z'?jftsf af/]df yf]/} pNn]v ul/Psf] % . o;n] ljZj /]l*of] ;+hfn;“u ;fs{ /fi^|x?sf /]l*of]x?sf] ;DjGw klg hf]*\g sf]lzz ul/Psf] % .

rf}yf} cWofodf /]l*of] bf];|f] ljZj o'$ kl%sf] pkof]lutf ;d]^\g k|of; % ;fy} /]l*of]nfO{ cfw'lgs k|ljlw e" ” pku|x k|)ffnL (satellite) sf] ?kdf b]vf k/]sf] ljifodf lj:tf/ ul/Psf] % clg ljz]iftf / r'gf}tLnfO{ s]nfpg k|ofz ul/Psf] % . o;}u/L kf“rf}+ cWofodf ablnbf]+ ljZj kl/k|]Io;“u} g]kfnsf] /]l*of] ‘/]l*of] g]kfn’ sf] :yfkgf / kx'“rnfO{ klg cf}+Nofpg k|of; ul/Psf] % eg] clGtd cWofodf yf]/} ;'emfjsf] ?kdf k|:t't ul/Psf] % .

@= /]l*of]sf] cfljisf/

;g\ 1835 df cd]l/sf lgjf;L Samuel F. B. Morse n] tf//lxt (wireless) ^]lnu|fkm ;Gb]z k&fpg] pkof]usf nflu d';{ sf]* -Morse Code) sf] cfljisf/ u/] h'g a]tf/ lkm|Sj]G;L l;Ugnaf^ Portrule Metal Bar sf] ;xfotfn] s]xL l*lh^ -digit) WjgLx? k&fpg ;lsg] lyof] .

k|f/Dedf o;nfO{ ^]lnu|fkm ;Gb]z k&fpg] ;+rf/sf] Pp^f ultnf] ;fwgsf] ?kdf pkof]u ul/Psf] ePklg To;sf] cf}lrTo /]l*of]sf] cfudgkl% ;dfKt eP/ uof] . t/ klg pQm Morse Code t/∙ (wave) af^ WjgL k&fpg] cfw'lgs k|ljlwsf] klg k'vf{sf] ?kdf dflgG% .

To;}u/L ;g\ 1844 b]lv 1856 df cfGw|dxf;fu/ d'lg la%\ofOPsf] ^]lnu|fkm s]j'n nfOgn] Psxb;Dd ;+;f/nfO{ hf]*\g] hdsf]{ u¥of] / ;g\ 1895 ;Dd ljZjnfO{ ^]lnu|fkmsf] %ftfd'lg ;d]^\g ;Sof] eg] 1895 df ;f]xL Morse Code nfO{ WjgL k&fpg] ;+s]tsf] cfwf/ agfP/ O^fnLsf j}!flgs u'Nn]{df] dfsf]{gLn] a]tf/ WjgL ;+s]t (wireless wave signal) k&fpg] ljlwsf] cfljisf/ u/] . o;}u/L ;g\ 1906 df dflg;sf] af]nL k|;f/)f ug{ ;s] h;nfO{ /]l*of]sf] gfd lbOof] / dfsf]{gLn] O^fnLb]lv :jLh/Nof)*;Ddsf] 1 = 5 ls= ld= df WjgL k|;f/)f ug{ ;s] .

To;kl% O^fnLb]lv cfGw|dxf;fu/ kf/L O∙Nof)*;Dd /]l*of] lk|mSj]G;L t/+u-Radio frequency signal) k&fpg ;lsof] . o;}u/L ;g\ 1915 kl% cd]l/sfs} AT&T sDkgLn] cd]l/sfsf] cfln{∙^gaf^ k]l/;sf] cfOkm]n ^fj/;Dd cGt/ dxfb]zLo (Transcontinental) l;Ugn k&fpg ;kmn eof] .

;g\ 1920 df dfsf]{gL cd]l/sf uP / Westing House sf] KDKA sDkgL;“u ldln Jofj;flos ?kdf /]l*of] k|;f/)f ;'? u/] . klxnf]kN^ Dof;fr';]^\;af^ afOansf] ;Gb]z k|;f/)f ul/of] eg] ;g\ 1921 df Aofj;flos :yfoL /]l*of] :^];g :yfkgf ul/of] eg]/ kqsfl/tfsf] ;fdfGo kl/ro k':tsdf k|jn/fh kf]v/]nn] pNn]v ug'{ ePsf] kfOG% .

o;y{ /]l*of] cfljisf/sf] >]o klg dfsf]{gLnfO{ hfG% eg] cd]l/sf Aofj;flos /]l*of] z'?jft ug]{ e"ldsf] ?kdf dflgG% . To;kl% ;g\ 1920 d} lk^;ju{df klg cflwsfl/s /]l*of] :yfkgf eof] eg]/ Daya Kishan Thussu n] cfkm\gf] International Communication continuity and change, page No: 26 df pNn]v u/]sf %g\ .

o;/L /]l*of]nfO{ qmdzM cfd ;+rf/sf] dfWoddWo] ;a}eGbf ;lhnf] / Aofks hg;d"x;Dd k'Ug ;kmn / nf]slk|o ;+rf/ ;fwgsf] ?kdf lng yflnof] . o; cy{df klg /]l*of]sf] cfljisf/ cfw'lgs ;+rf/ dfWodsf] nflu cTolws pkof]uL dflgg yflnof] eg]/ ab|L kf}*\ofn, kqsfl/tf s]lGb|o ljefusf k|d'vn] cfkm\gf] /]l*of] sfo{qmd k':tssf] k]h g+= 1 df pNn]v ug'{ ePsf] kfOG% .

#= bf]>f] ljZjo'$ cl# ;+rf/ dfWodsf] ?kdf /]l*of]

19 cf}+ ztflJbsf] k|f/Dedf cfPsf] /]l*of]n] ;xh} ?kdf /fli^|o l;df kf/ u¥of] / cGt/f{li^|o ;+rf/ dfWodsf] ?kdf ljsl;t eof] .

dfly pNn]v u/] cg';f/ Aofj;flos ?kdf cd]l/sfaf^ ;g\ 1920 df z'? ePkl% a]nfotn] klg ;g\ 1922 df hf]g l/ysf] lgb]{zgdf la|l^; cDkfP/ ;le{; -xfnsf] BBC_ n] k|;f/)f z'? u¥of] t/ o;n] z'?df s]xL #)^fdfq ;dfrf/ k|;f/)f uYof{] eg] ;g\ 1927 hgj/L 1 df skf]{/];gdf ablnPkl% lgoldt ?kaf^ cfkm\gf] sfo{qmd ;+;f/;fd' k'¥ofpg ;s]sf] % .

clxn] 90 b]zdf 44 efiff / Ps xhf/ eGbf a(L zx/x?df o;sf :yfO :^];gx? %g\ . o; cy{df ;a}eGbf kx'“r x'g] /]l*of]sf] ?kdf BBC n] :yfkgfsfnb]lv g} cfkm'nfO{ k|:t't u/]sf] % . ljz]if u/L ;g\ 1927 kl% Short wave sf] k|f/De ePkl% /.]l*of]sf] pkl:ylt :yfO{ / e/kbf]{ ;+rf/ dfWodsf] ?kaf^ cfPsf] kfpg ;lsG% . o;}u/L bf];|f] ljZjo'$eGbf cufl* gfhL zf;s lx^n/n] o;nfO{ ckmjfx km}nfpg] ;fwg -Propaganda tools) sf] ?kdf /]l*of]sf] pkof]u u¥of] h'g w]/} xb;Dd ;kmn eof] . o;y{ lkm|Sj]G;L dfkm{t o'$df dgf]a}!flgs ljho xft kfg{ lx^n/n] /]l*of]nfO{ ;kmn ;fwgsf] ?kdf pkof]u u¥of] eg] ckmjfx km}nfpg] dGqfno-Propaganda Ministry) g} bf];|f] ljZj o'$tfsf vf]Nof] .

To;}u/L lzt o'$ -cold war) sf cjlwdf b'O{ w|'j cd]l/sf / ;f]leot o'lgogn] cfkm\gf] k'“hLjfbL / ;fDojfbL bz{gnfO{ ljZj;fd' k'¥ofpg k|rf/ k|;f/sf] dfWod agfP .

To;kl%sf] bzsdf /]l*of]nfO{ ax'”cfoflds ;+rf/sf] ?kdf k|of]u ug{ yflnof] eg] k|ToIf #^gf k|;f/)f ug]{ ;fwgsf] ?kdf pkof]u ul/of] . ;g\ 1922 df ePsf] cd]l/sL /fi^|klt j'*\/f] ljn;gsf] l;g]^ ;dIf ;kysf] k|;f/)f g} klxnf] k|ToIf k|;f/)f lyof] eg] To; jif{;Dd cd]l/sfdf 30 jf^ zlQmsf] /]l*of]sf] ljsf; ePsf] kfpg ;lsG% .

la:tf/} /]l*of] ;]^sf] Jofj;flosLs/)f / ;]jfd'vL sfo{qmdn] ljZjJofkL cfsf/ ln+b} uof] / ;g\ 1930 tfsf cd]l/sfdf dfq 46 ∞ #/x?df /]l*of] ;]^ k'Uof] eg] xfd|f] l%d]sL b]z ef/tdf klg /]l*of] ;g\ 1924 df lj|l^; zf;sx?n] cfkm\gf] cfGtl/s ;+rf/sf nflu NofOk'¥ofP .

bf];|f] ljZj o'$sf] ;dodf /]l*of]sf] nf]slk|otf lgSs} a(\of] . ;g\ 1943 ;]K^]Da/ 13 df tfTsflng cd]l/sL /fi^|klt cfOhg xfj/n] O^fnLn] o'$df cfTd ;dk{)f u/]sf] #f]if)ff /]l*of]af^} u/]sf lyP . To;n] /]l*of]sf] pkof]lutfsf] dxŒj emNsfof] .

ef/tdf ;a{k|yd db|f;af^ db|f; Pd]Rof]/ Snan] l;ldt ;f}lvg JolQmx?sf] :jfldTjdf l;ldt If]q se/ ug]{ /]l*of] :^];g / >f]tf Snjsf] :yfkgf u/]tfklg ;g\ 1927 kl% Indian Broadcasting Company n] aDa} / snsQfaf^ gLlh -Private) k|;f/)f z'? / ;g\ 1930 df ;/sf/ cfkm}n] To;nfO{ ;sf/L :jfldTjdf -take over)lnof] . To;kl% ;g\ 1936 af^ All India Radio sf] :yfkgf eof] h;nfO{ cfsfzaf)fL /]l*of] elgof] / o;n] To;kl%sf lbgdf lgoldt k|;f/)f ub}{ cfO/x]sf] % .

o;}u/L kfls:tfgdf cflwsfl/s ?kdf ;g\ 1949 df s/f“rLaf^ /]l*of] s/f“rLsf] ;]jf z'? eof] eg] ;g\ 1950 df /fjnlk)*L / Sj]^fdf klg lj:tf/ eof] . t/ ef/t;“u ljefhg gx'“bf k]zfj/af^ ;g\ 1924 df ;/bf/ cAb'n s}o'd vfgn] s]xL ;]^ /]l*of] dfsf]{gLaf^ lsg]/ NofO k|;f/)f u/] ;f]xL /]l*of] ;]jf kl% cGo zx/df lj:tf/ eof] -Tof] /]l*of] Pd]Rof]/ Sna eGbf klg cl#sf] ePklg cflwsf/Ls ?kdf s]xL pNn]v ePsf] kfOb}g_ .

>Ln+‚fdf klg h'nfO 1924 df la|l^; ue{g/x?n] ;^{j]e /]l*of]sf] ?kdf k|;f/)f z'? u/] t/ a+unfb]zdf eg] ;g\ 1948 df dfq} (fsfdf /]l*of] :^];gsf] :yfkgf ePsf] kfpg ;lsG% . z'?df ef/t, kfls:tfg / j+unfb]z Pp^} b]z ePsf] / pgLx?sf] ;+rf/sf] Oltxf; klg Psfk;df uf“l;Psf] kfpg ;lsG% .

dflNbE;sf] s'/f ug'{ kbf{ ;g\ 1972 df Radio voice of Maldives tfTsflng k|= d= Os|flxd gfl;/n] :yfkgf u/] eg] e'^fgsf] ;jfndf ;g\ 1992 af^ Bhutan Broadcasting Service (BBS) k|;f/)fdf % . t/ ;fs{s} Pp^f gof“ ;b:o /fi^| ckmuflg:tfgdf eg] ;g\ 2002 cl# ;f]leot ;dfhjfbL dfsf{sf /]l*of] k|;f/)fdf lyof] t/ Tof] tflnjfgsf] zf;gsfndf aGb x'g k'Uof] . To;kl%sf] jif{df ha xldb sf/hfO /fi^|klt ePkl% dfq :jtGq /]l*of]sf] k|;f/)f ePsf] kfpg ;lsG% .

o;/L ;fs{ b]zx?sf /]l*of] k|;f/)fn] klg klZrdf cfd ;+rf/;“u Psfk;df ;"rgf , dgf]/œhg nufot ljljw s'/fdf ;xF;DjGw cfbfg k|bfg ub}{ cfO/x]sf] x'“bf k|hftGq, JolQmsf] Go"gtd jfs :jtGqtf / dfgj clwsf/nfO{ k|ToIf jf ck|ToIf ?kdf ;xof]u u/]sf] % .

;du|df bf];|f] ljZj o'$ cl# /]l*of]]nfO{ k"“hLjfbL v]df cd]l/sfn] cfkm\gf] gLlt cg's"n ljZjsf cGo ;fgf / ;+rf/df b'j{n /fi^|nfO{ cfkm" tkm{ cfsif{)f ug{ ckmjfx km}nfpg] ;fwg-propaganda tools) sf] ?kdf a(L pkof]u u¥of] / ljleGg b]zdf /]l*of] :^];g cfkm\g} nufgLdf vf]n]/ If]lqo ;Gt'ng sfod ug]{ sf]lzz u¥of] eg] ;fDojfbL ?;n] klg sDo'lgi^ wf/sf sltko /fi^|df ks* sfod /fVg To:t} tl/sf k|of]u u¥of] . To; eGbf Ps sbd kl% hd{gLsf lx^n/n] cfkm\gf dGqL hf];]km uf]aN;nfO{ /]l*of] ckmjfx km}nfpg] dGqfno -propaganda Ministry_sf] lhDd]jf/L lbPsf] kfpg ;lsG5 (Daya Kishan Thussu n] cfkm\gf] International Communication continuity and change df pNn]v 5 .

O6fnLsf tfTsflng zf;s a]lgtf] d';f]lngL, hfkfgsf] /]l*of] Nippon Hoso Kyoka (NHK) nufot a]nfotn] klg /]l8of] BBC nfO{ cfkm\gf] lxt cg's'n pkof]u u¥of] . o;}u/L /]lof] d:sf], /]l*of] xjfgf, /]l*of] k]ls· h:tf Tolta]nfsf /]l*of] Rofgnn] tnsf s'/fx?df Wofg s]lGb|t u/]sf] kfpg ;lsG% eg]/ Daya Kishan Thussu n] g} cfkm\gf] lstfj International communication continuity and change df pNn]v u/]sf 5g\M”

! = /]l8of] cGt/f{li^|o ;+rf/sf] dfWod xf] .

@ = /]l8of]n] AolQmdf dgf]a}!flgs ;fy} efjgfTds ;DjGwsf] la:tf/ ug{ ;xof]u u%{ .

# = /]l8of] %fkf kqsfl/tf eGbf klg zlQmzfnL x'G% . o;y{ AolQmnfO{ l%§f] cfsif{)f ug{ ;S% .

$ = /]l8of] /fhg}lts ideology propaganda sf] ?kdf k|of]u ug{ ;lsG% .

% = /]l8of]sf klg >f]tfx? x'G%g / pgLx?s} ?rL cg';f/ sfo{qmd pTkfbg / k|;f/)f ug'{ kb{% .

^ = /]l8of] dgf]/œhgsf] e/k'/ ;fwg xf] .

& = /]l8of]af^ lzIffd'ns sfo{qmd klg k|;f/)f ug{ ;lsG% h'g k|efjsf/L x'G% .

* = /]l8of] tfhf #^\gf, ;"rgf / ;dfrf/ k|;f/)fsf] k|efjsf/L dfWod xf] .

$= bf];|f] ljZjo'$kl% /]l*of] zlQmzfnL / e/kbf]{ ;+rf/ dfWodsf]] ?kdf

dfgj Oltxf;s} eofgs g/;+xf/sf/L ljWj+z bf];|f] ljZj o'$ -;g\ 1939”1945_ n] wg hgsf] gu)o IftL t lbof] g} t/ csf]{ lasNksf] ?kdf ;fdflhs pQ/bfloTjsf] efjgf klg ljZj;fd' hufof] . o'$ ljlelifsfsf nflu p$t d'n'sx?sf sltko kIf h:t} cfly{s, /fhg}lts, s'^g}lts, ef}uf]lns / ;fdl/s dxŒj Ifo eP/ uof] eg] To;sf] ljkl/t k|ljlwdf a(]/ uof] . hd{gLsf] k/fho ;∙;∙} ef}uf]lns cfs[lt klg gS;fdf ;fgf] eP/ uof] / aln{g kvf{nsf] lgdf{)fn] k"jL{ hd{gL / klZrd hd{gL k"“hLjfbL / ;fDojfbL b'O{ w|'jdf af“l*P . To;}u/L pQ/ / blIf)f sf]l/ofsf] ljefhg klg bf];|f] ljZjo'$sfnd} eof] .

Tolta]nf klg /]l*of] k|;f/)fn] dxŒjk")f{ e"ldsf v]n]sf] lyof] . o; cjlwdf /]l*of] zlQmzfnL / e/kbf]{ ;+rf/ dfWodsf] ?kdf :yfkgf eof] . To;n] ljZj zfGtLjfbL zlQm jf c;+nUg (Non allign force_ gLlt clVtof/ ug]{ w|'jsf] :yfkgf ug{df klg pNn]Vo e"ldsf v]Nof] .

o'$n] x/]s /fi^| g/fd|/L k|efljt ePsf] a]nf /]l*of]n] cfly{s cj:yf ;'wfg{ klg of]ubfg lbof] . /]l*of]nfO{ lj!fkgsf] d'Vo dfWod agfP/ pTkfbg sDkgLsf] k|rf/”k|;f/ hgtf ;fd' k'¥ofpg] / To; jfkt lglZrt /sd /]l*of]n] lng] ;Demf}tfn] pTkfbg sDkgLsf] ahf/ Aofj:yfkgdf ;xof]u eof] eg] laqmLdf klg a[l$ cfof] . To;n] Aofj;flos lj!fkg -commercial advertisement) sf] z'?jft u¥of] . o;/L lj!fkgdf klg ljB'lto dfWod -electronic media) sf] pkof]u –use) ;kmn ?kdf eof] . /]l*of]df PskN^ lj!fkg u/] afkt cd]l/sfdf ;g\ 1943 b]lv 1945 ;Dd s]jn bz k};f -ten cent) lng] gLlt ;a}eGbf k|efjsf/L lyof] eg]/ A Concise history of American Broadcasting df Christopher H. Sterling & John M. Kittross n] pNn]v u/]sf %g\ .

o;}u/L /]l*of]n] hgtfdf /fli^|o efjgf (Patriotism) a(fpgdf klg ;xof]u u¥of] . To;n] /fi^| lgdf{)f ug{df efjgfTds Pstf Nofof] eg] ;dfrf/df ;a}sf] kx'“r ;dfg ?kn] (Divercification in news) df klg ;xof]u u¥of] . o;n] w]/} %gf}^ -many voices many choice) jf ax'njfb (Pluralism) klg Nofof] .

/]l*of] tfhf #^gf ;Dk|]if)f ug]{ dfWod t %“b} lyof] eg] bf];|f] ljZj o'$df n*fO}“sf ;dfrf/ klg /f]rs ?kdf lbg yfNof] . Edward R. Murrow n] klxnf]kN^ CBS /]l*of]sf nflu ;g\ 1940 df :ynut ;dfrf/ k|;f/)f (broadcast) u/] eg] hfkfg ” a]nfot o'$sf] ;dfrf/ klg Eric Sevareid n] k|;f/)f u/] . /]l*of]n] o'$nfO{ x/]s #/ #/df / AolQm AolQmdfem NofOlbof] (Radio brought the War to the infront of every homes) . o'$df s] e} /x]% / s;sf] ljho s;sf] k/fho x'“b}% ;f] s'/f /]l*of]af^ AolQmn] yfxf kfp“y] eg] To;kl% AolQmsf] k|ltlqmof cfp“gdf ;xof]u u¥of] eg]/ A concise history of American broadcasting df Christopher H. Sterling & John M. Kittross n] g} pNn]v u/]sf %g\ . To;n] /]l*of]sf] k|efjsfl/tf 1934 ” 1941 ;Dd :j)f{ o'u-Golden age) sf] ?kdf AofVof u¥of] / /]l*of] nf]slk|o ;+rf/sf] ;fwg -dominant media) sf] ?kdf :yflkt eof] .

bf]];f] ljZj o'$df klg /]l*of]nfO{ kg*'AaL ;}lgsx?n]-Naval Radio) jf ;}lgs ;+rf/ ;+s]t-Army signal) sf] ?kdf k|of]u ul/of] t/ lj:tfl/t ?kdf To;sf] lj:tf/ -network) cGt/f{li^|o :t/df k'Uof]] ;fy} >f]tf-audience_sf] klg cWoog eof] eg] /fli^|o rfxgfx? cGt/f{li^|o algP (national craze become international) .

s= bf]]>f] ljZj o'$ kl%sf] /]l*of]sf] ljz]iftf

/]l*of] cGt/f{li^|o ;+rf/sf] ?kdf ljsf; ePsf] x'“bf &"nf ;d'bfosf] lxtnfO{ ;d]^L/x]sf] % . /]l*of] %fkf dfWod h;/L %flkPsf] s'/f b]lvg] gePtfklg xfjfaf^ t/+lut ;fj{hlgs ;DklQ xf] / kqklqsf eGbf cfwf/e"t ?kd} leGgtf % . klqsf h;n] klg k|sflzt ug{ ;Dej ePklg /]l*of] k|ljlw;“u ;/f]sf/ /fVg] x'gfn] hf] h;n] rfx]sf] ;dodf klqsf h:t} lsGg ;lsGg . /]l*of]sf nflu k|fljlws sf/)fn] Rofgn l;ldt x'G% . F. M. Aof)*af^ /]l*of] t/+u kmfNgsfnflu OG^/g]zgn ^]lnsDo'lgs]zg o'lgogsf] lgodleq /x]/ ;Lldt lkm|Sj]G;Ldfq Pp^f /fi^|n] kfpg ;S% . o;y{ 88 d]#fxh{b]lv 108 ;Dd %'§fOPsf] x'G% .

;+o'Qm /fHo cd]l/sfsf /]l*of] ;dfrf/ lgb]{zs ;+#n] ;g\ 2000 df kfl/t u/] cg';f/ /]l*of] hg ljZjf; lhTg] dfWod xf] . o;n] ;To ;dfrf/ k|;f/)fdf ljZjf; ub{% / ;dfrf/ s;}sf] k|efjdf gk/L lgZkIf lbG%, ;dfh k|lt g}lts OdfGbf/Ltf dx;"; ub{% . o;n] k|hftGq / AolQmsf] :jtGqtfnfO{ ;jf]{k/L &fGb% . ;a}sf] kx'r x'g' kg]{ / cfkm' cfkm\gf] ;“:yfk|lt pQ/bfoL x'g'kb{% eg]/ pNn]v u/]sf] % . t/ klg pNn]Vo ljz]iftfsf] ?kdf o;/L lng ;lsG% M”

-s_ lqmoflzn k|)ffnLM :yflgo jfl;Gbfx?sf] Xbosf] glhs} /xG% / pgLx?sf dgnfO{ %'g sf]lzz u%{

o;y{ /]l*of] sfo{qmd ;sf/fTds / lg)f{o l;h{gf ug{ d@t ub{% . o;n] ;fIf/tf k|ltzt a(fpg

;xof]u ub{% .

-v_ dfgljo cGt{lqmofM /=]l*of]n] k|;f/s / >f]]tfljrsf] ;DjGw Aofjxfl/s agfp“% . o;df :yflgo

efjgfn] ;dfgtf kfp“% . Ps JolQm csf]{ AolQmsf] ;+j]bgf k|lt ;hu / rgfvf] /xG% .

-u_ ;fd"lxs sfo{ -Team work_M /]l*of] sfo{qmd PSn}n] u/]/ x'“b}g . ;d"x h;df k|fljlws /

ck|fljlwsx?sf] ;fd"lxs sfo{ xf] / ;dfhsf] nflu / Pp^f nlIft au{sf] nflu cfTdf xf] .

-#_ ;fdflhs lgoGq)fM /]l*of]n] ;dfhsf] ;fd"lxs lxt, ;fd"lxs :jfy{sf] sfo{df ;+nUg /xG% .

;d'bfo;“u ;xsfo{ ub{% .

-*=_ ef}lts ;fldKotf M nlIft ju{ / &"nf] ;d'bfosf] lxt;“u hf]l*Psf] x'G% . AolQm”AolQmljr ef}uf]lns

?kdf ^f(f ePklg ;fldKotf sfod u/fpg ;xof]u ub{% .

-r_ /]l*of] t/+u ;"rgf cfbfg”k|bfgsf nflu k|of]u x'G% . o;sf nflu ^|fG;ld^/ / l/l;e/ clgjfo{

x'G% . t/+u dfkm{t ;"rgf k|;f/)f ub{% .

-%_ /]l*of] t/+usf] l;df x'Gg . s'g} If]q ljz]if jf d'n's ljz]ifn] dfq} /]l*of] t/· cfkm\gf] lgoGq)fdf

/fVg ;Sb}g t/ /fli^|o”cGt/f{li^|o ?kdf tf]lsPsf] lgod sfg"gsf] kl/lw gf#\g kfOb}g .

-h_ /]l*of] ;"rgfsf] cfbfg”k|bfg ug]{ e/kbf]{ ;fwg dflgG% .

-em_ :jtGq d'n'ssf] ;+rf/ k|)ffnLdf ;xof]u ub{% . ljb]zL d'n'saf^ k|efljt jf ;+rflnt ;+rf/n]

d'n'snfO{ s'g}klg a]nf ;+s^df kfg]{ x'gfn] cfjZostf % .

-œf_ a}!flgs k|ljlwM clxn] /]l*of]af^ k|;fl/t sfo{qmd e"”pku|xaf^ t'?Gt} ;+;f/ ;fd' km}nfpg ;lsG% .

-^_ >f]tf ;xeflutf / nIo M /]l*of]sf] ;DklQ eg]s} nlIft >f]tf au{ x'g To;}n] pgLx?sf] dg lhTg]

sfo{qmddf Wofg lbg' kb{% . >f]tfsf] ;xeflutf g} /]l*of]sf] cfTdf xf] .

v= bf];|f] ljZj o'$kl% /]l*of] Theory sf] ?kdf cWoog

/]l*of] kqsfl/tf / k|ljlw cGt/f{li^|o ;+rf/ dfWodsf] ?kdf ljsl;t ePsf] x'gfn] o;sf] cWoog ;g\ 1960 kl% ul/g yfn]sf] kfpg ;lsG% . ;dfhdf /]l*of]n] s;/L k|efj kf%{, < cfd ;+rf/;· /]l*of]sf] ;DjGw s:tf] /x]sf] % < OToflbsf] af/]df ljleGg AolQmx?n] Psn jf ;fd"lxs l;$fGt -theory) sf] ?kdf cWoog u/]sf] kfpg ;lsG% . cWoog s} qmddf Power without responsibility: The press and broadcasting in Britain k':tsdf James Curran & Jean Seaton n] pNn]v u/] cg';f/ /]l*of] g} AolQmsf] glhs x'G% o;y{ /fHon] tL AolQmx?sf] a[xQ/ lxt cg';f/ /]l*of] k|;f/)f gLlt Nofpg' kb{% jf cWoogdf ;sf/fTds ;xof]u ug'{ kb{% eg]sf %g\ .

l;$fGt-Theory) cWoogs} qmddf Anthony Smith & Colin Seymour – Ure sf] ;g\ 1968 df cfPsf] Classic Liberal theory klg Ps xf] . o; theory cg';f/ kqsf/x?n] /fHosf] rf}yf] c·sf] ?kdf sfd ug{ kfp“g' kb{% / /fHon] To; dfly x:tIf]ksf/L e"ldsf lgjf{x ug'{ x'“b}g eGg] lyof] t/ klg ljleGg AolQmx?sf] rfxgf, l;$fGt, gLlt / ;dfhsf opinion leaders n] klg /]l*of]sf] k|efjsfl/tfdf k|efj kfb{% eGg] % .

o;}u/L Independence and the theory of broadcasting df /fHo / ;+rf/ gLlt, accountability and broadcast, indepeendace and people with interest, media should be accountable and function independence OToflbn] /fi^|df s;/L sfd u/]sf] x'G% / To;}nfO{ o; l;$fGt (theory) df AofVof ul/Psf] kfpg ;lsG% . /]l*of]n] hgtfsf nflu lgikIf / jfs :jtGqtf -free flow of expression) sf] ?kdf slQsf] sfd ug{ kfPsf] % To;nfO{ ljz]if ?kdf o; l;$fGt -theory) n] cWoog u¥of] .

;g\ 1980 ” 1990 df Choice versus public service theory Georg Orwell n]

NofPsf x'g . o; l;$fGtsf cg';f/ /]l*of]df efiff -language) n] klg &"nf] e"ldsf v]Ng ;Sb% / efiffsf] :jtGqtf -language of freedom) ;fy;fy} JolQmx?sf] %gf}^ (choice of people_:jtGq eof] eg]dfq k|efjsf/L x'g ;S% . AolQmsf] rfxgfnfO{ ;d]^\g >f]tfsf] ljrf/nfO{ pRr dxŒj lbg' kb{% eGg] o; theory sf] cf;o lyof] .

To:t} ;g\ 1948 kl% Harold Lasswell n] Social Responsibility theory NofPsf x'g . ;+rf/sf] ;DjGw ;dfhdf ;lxi)f'tf, ;b\efj / social order sfod ug{sfnflu k|ofz/t x'G% / To;n] ;dfhsf dfu{bz{sx?nfO{ k|jflxt ug]{ sfd ub{% . ;dfrf/k|lt pQ/bfloTj axg ug{ klg k|]l/t ub{% o;y{ ;+rf/sf] If]q Aofks % eg]/ AofVof u/]sf %g\ . ;dfhk|lt ;sf/fTds-positive) wf/)ff jf pQ/bflo / Media(indluding Radio) n] klg :jo+ pQ/bfoL -self responsibility) sf] kIfkftL / ;dfh ;]jfd'vL-public service broadcasting) x'g' kb{% eg]/ o; l;$fGt-theory) n] jsfnt ub{% . ;+rf/ dfWod zlQm;fnL-Media powerful) x'G% , o;n] ;dfhsf] P]gfsf] ?kdf sfd ub{% / k|]; :jtGqtf-free flow of press) sf] ;dy{g ub{% .

;g\ 1980 kl% Convergence theory klg cl:tTjdf cfof] h;nfO{ digitalization technology sf] ?kdf AofVof ul/Psf] kfOG% . k'/fgf k|ljlwsf] &fp“df gof“ k|ljlwsf] ljsf; jf convergence/replace eof] / To;n] ;+;f/nfO{ If)fe/d} hf]*\g ;kmn eof] . OG^/g]^, Od]n, Rof^ / df]afOn kmf]gdf k|of]u x'g] clt ;'Id micro chips sf] k|of]u ;/n, &\ofSs}-accurate), af]Sg ;lhnf] / ;'/lIft k|ljlw ;+;f/e/ k|of]udf cfof] .

o;n] ;dfhsf k|To]s AolQmnfO{ ;+rf/(media)df ;a}nfO{ ;dfg cj;/-equal opportunity) lbPsf] x'G% / ;dfhsf] cfjZostf (Fundamental) nfO{ cfkm" cg's"n kl/jt{g ug{ sf]lzz ub{% . e"”pku|x k|)ffnL dfkm{t e-net sf] ;xfotfn] If)f e/d} ;"rgf ;+;f/e/ km}nfpg ;Sg] ljz]iftf o;df x'G% . Audience nfO{ hfu?s agfp“%, o;n] w]/} AolQm w]/} %gf}^-variety choice) lbG% . h:t} o'jfx? fashion, pop music h:tf ;fdflu| download u/]/ x]g{ ;S%g eg] k|f}(x? af}l$s :t/sf ;fdflu| k|lt cfsif{s %g\ . e-chat, e- seminar, e-debate, e-shopping, e-marketting, online seminar h:tf Pp^f s';L{df a;]/ csf]{ s'gfsf AolQm;∙ If)fe/d} bf]xf]/f] jftf{nfk x'G% / cyber – liberatarinism wf/)ffsf] ljsf; u/fp“% eg] ;+;f/nfO{ ;fgf] digital village sf] ?kdf AofVof ub{% .

u= /]l*of]sf ;d:of tyf r'gf}tLx?

/]l*of]df vf; u/]/ eflifs lje]b g} r'gf}tLsf] ?kdf b]lvG% . c+u|]hL efiff ljZjdf ;+rf/sf] k|d'v dfWodsf] ?kdf b]vf k/]tfklg w]/} d'n'sx? %g hxf“ :yflgo efiffdfq} af]lnrfnLsf] ?kdf ckgfOG% . o;}u/L eflifs c!fgtf, zAb ;+of]hg, nfdf] jfSo klg o;}leq kb{%g\ .

o;}u/L 21 cf}+ ztflAbsf] cf/De b]lv g} zlQm ;DkGg /fi^|x?n] /]l*of] ;+rf/df cfkm\gf] dgf]dfgL / Psflwsf/nfO{ a(fjf lb+b} uPsfn] ;+rf/ If]qdf of] ldrfxf k|j[lQsf] c;/ kb}{ hfg yfn]sf] % .

5= abln+bf] ljZj kl/k|]Io;“u} /]l*of] g]kfn

g]kfndf /]l*of]sf]] k|;f/)f z'?jft 2007 ;fn -;g\ 1990_ d+l;/ 29 df ‘k|hftGq g]kfn /]l*of]’ sf] gfdn] cf}krfl/s ?kdf :yfkgf ePsf] xf] / Tof] klg qmflGtsf/Lx?n] d'lQm df]rf{sf] ;+u&g k|rf/ k|;f/ ug]{ p@]Zon] la/f^gu/ h'^ldn Pl/ofaf^ cfkm}n] 250 jf^ Ifdtfsf] ^|fG;ld^/af^ k|;f/)f z'? ul/of] - pQm klxnf] k|;f/)f la/f^gu/af^ geP/ ef]hk'/af^ ul/Psf] / kl% la/f^gu/ ;fl/Psf] xf] egL gf/bd'gL y'n'∙sf] :d/)fdf pNn]v % eg]/ dx]z k|;fb clwsf/Ln] k|;f/)f kqsfl/tf xft] lstfjdf pNn]v u/]sf] kfpg ;lsG%_ / klxnf] cfjfh tfl/)fL k|;fb sf]O/fnfn] 41 ld^/ d]#fxh{df ‘of] k|hftGq /]l*of] xf], xfdL d'lQm ;+u|fdsf] df]rf{af^ af]ln/x]sf %f}+===================================’ eg]/ k|jfx u/] t/ klg /]l*of] ;]^ lj= ;+= 2004 ;fneGbf cl# g} g]kfndf s]xL wgL kl/jf/ / a]nfotL ;]gfdf sfd ug]{ AolQmn] leœofO{ ;s]sf lyP clkt' /f)ffx?n] ;j{;fwf/)fnfO{ /]l*of] /fVg cg'dlt lbPsf lyPgg\ t/ pRr /f)ff vfgbfgnfO{ /fVg cg'dlt rflxb}g lyof] .

lj= ;+ 2004 ;fndf tfTsflng /f)ff >L 3 k|wfgdGqL kß zd;]/n] g]kfn ;/sf/sf] a}wflgs sfg"g ” 2004 nfu'ubf{ /]l*of] /fVg df}lvs Ohfht lbP To;kl% lj:tf/} /]l*of]nfO{ ;"rgf, ;dfrf/ / ;Gb]zsf] ?kdf eGbf ;f]vsf] ?kdf /fVg yflnof] . Tolta]nfsf] g]kfnsf] ;fIf/tf cj:yfn] klg /]l*of]sf] k|efjsfl/tfdf k|lts"n k|efj kf/]sf] x'g' kb{% .

o;/L k|hftGq /]l*of]sf] gfdaf^ / k|hftflGqs k[i&e"ldaf^ ;'? ePsf] /]l*of] g]kfn 2007 r}q 20 ut]af^ sf&df)*f}+df ;f/]/ ;'? ePsf] /]l*of] g]kfnsf] clwsf+z ;do eg] k|hftGq / o;sf] dd{ la?$ k|xf/ ug{ d} s]lGb|t /x]sf] s'/f lj= ;+= 2017 ;fn kf}if 1 ut] kœrfotL Aofj:yfnfO{ lglj{sNk Aofj:yfsf] ?kdf k|rf/ ug{ o;sf] r/d b'?kof]u Pp^f pbfx/)f g} sfkmL % .

g]kfn clw/fHosf] ;+ljwfg 2047 af:tjdf hgtfsf] Pstfsf] ann] / zlxbx?sf] /utn] n]lvPsf] x'“bf pQm ;+ljwfgn] g]kfnL hgtfsf jfs :jtGqtf / df}lns xsnfO{ klg lnlvt ?kdf pRr k|fyldstf lbof] . o;y{ 2048 ;fndf u&g ePsf] gLlh:t/sf FM -jflx/ ;g\ 1940 d} cfO;s]sf] xf]_ k|ljlwsf] Ohfhtsf nflu /fh]Gb| bfxfn, g/x/L cfrfo{ nufotsf] ;'emfj cfof]un] ;/sf/nfO{ nlrnf] gLlt / nufgLnfO{ Ohfht lbg'kg]{ s'/fn] clxn]sf] FM x?sf] cfudgnfO{ ;'lglZrttf lbof] . Tolt a]nf bfxfnsf] egfO{ lyof] ‘FM k|;f/)f eljiosf] Pp^f ;a}eGbf lskmfotL, a(L nf]slk|o / pkof]uL x'g ;S%’ eGg] egfO{ jf:tjdf clxn] FMsf] k|efjsf/Ltfsf] ;Gbe{df Psbd} ;do ;fk]If ePsf] % .

To;kl% lj= ;+= 2049 sf] ;+rf/ gLltn] ;dfrf/, ;"rgf, lzIff / dgf]/œhgfTds sfo{qmd k|;f/)f ug]{ gLlt clVtof/ u¥of] eg] To; cl# cfPsf] /fli^|o ;+rf/ of]hgf 2028 eGbf ;"rgfd"ns sfo{qmd eg]/ ylkPsf] lyof] / cfkm\gf] ;dosf] 40 ” 50 ∞ ;do ;dfrf/d"ns / lzIffd"ns sfo{qmdsf nflu clxn]klg %'§fPsf] kfOG% . h:t} M”

s\|fo{qmdsf] lsl;d	Kff}}if 2046 ;fKtflxs k\|;f/)f ;do 101 #)^f	Kff}if 2049 ;fKtflxs k\|;f/)f ;do 107 #)^f ljbfsf] lbg yk 2 #)^f	a}zfv 2050 ;fKtflxs k\|;f/)f ;do 107 #)^f / ljbfsf] lbg yk 2 #)^f	cfiff( 2053 ;fKtflxs k\|;f/)f ;do 150 #)^f 18 ldg]^ labfsf] lbg yk 2 #)^f
;dfrf/d"ns sfo{qmd	16 = 8 ∞	15 ∞	17 = 28 ∞	20 = 50 ∞
lzIffdns sfo{qmd	38 = 7 ∞	25 ∞	23 = 91 ∞	16 = 40 ∞
Dfgf]/œhgfTds sfo{qmd	44 = 5 ∞	60 ∞	58 = 81 ∞	63 = 10 ∞

;fef/ M dx]z k|;fb clwsf/L, lzif{s M /]l*of] g]kfn ” lxhf]b]lv ef]nL;Dd, k|;f/)f kqsfl/tf xft]

lstfj, k]h g+ 99.

lj= ;=+ 2052 df nfu' ePsf] gLlh :t/sf FM nfO{ k|;f/)f ug{ Ohfht lbg'kg]{ gLltn] :jo+ /]l*of] g]kfn cfkm}n] 100 d]#fxh{df FM k|;f/)f z'? ug{ tfTsflng /]l*of] g]kfnsf al/i& OlGhlgo/ /fdz/)f sfsL{sf] ;+of]hsTjdf k'?if]fQd ;fksf]^f, ;'lzn sf]O/fnf, kf)*a ;'g'jf/, w|'a axfb'/ yfkf / e}/a axfb'/ clwsf/L cflbn] klxnf]kN^ FM sf] k|;f/)f z'? ug{ cWoog u/] . t;y{ /]l*of]sf] xf“ufsf] ?kdf gLlh :t/sf FM x? g]kfnsf] cfsfzdf k|;f/)f x'g yfNof] . lj= ;+= 2054 h]& 5 ut] gLlh:t/af^ ;u/dfyf ;fd'bflos /]l*of] :yfkgf kl% nueu 10 bh{g FM /]l*of]x?n] Ohfht lnPsf %g eg] s/Lj b'Oh{g hlt FM n] lgoldt ?kdf sfo{qmd k|;f/)f u/L /fv]sf %g\ .

lj= ;+= 2021 ;fn -;g\ 1964_ df Plzof”Kofl;lkms a|f]*sfl:^∙ o'lgog (ASIA -PACIFIC BROADCASTING UNION) sf] :yfkgf eof] / k|zfGt dxf;fu/Lo leq kg]{ b]zx?sf k|;f/)f ;+:yfx? /]l*of] / l^ eL o; ;+u&gsf ;b:o ag] / /]l*of] g]kfn klg ;f]xL jif{ To;sf] ;b:o aGof] .

/]l*of] g]kfnsf k|f/lDes lbgx? Hofb} r'gf}tLk")f{ lyP eg] clxn] klg gLlh :t/sf FM ;“u v/f] k|lt:kwf{df plqg' k/]sf] % eg] csf]{lt/ cfkm} lj!fkgsf] cfwf/df af“Rg' kg]{ / k|hftflGqs tj/af^ hgtfsf] lxt, /fli^|o ljsf;, ;dfrf/df If]lqo ;Gt'ng, lgZkIf, tYo, zlQmdf]xsf AolQmaf^ :jtGq /xg / tfhf #^gfsf] nflu d]xgt ug'{kg]{ b]lvG% .

6= lgZsif{df

klxnf] ljZj o'$df /]l*of]nfO{ ;"rgf / ;dfrf/ eGbfklg cGo ljleGg p@]Zon] k|of]u ul/P . tL dWo] hgtfsf] wf/)ffdfly lgoGq)f / b'Zdg lj?$ Propoganda km}nfpg] ;fwg d'Vo lyP . ;g\ 1941 df hfklgh ;]gfn] cd]l/sL ;]gfsf] hxfh Pearl Harbour df *'afPsf] ;dfrf/nfO{ /]l*of]af^ k|;f/)f gu/L n'sfOof] eg] ;g\ 1960 sf] leotgfd o'$ lhTg cd]l/sfn] /]l*of]nfO{ psychoplogical warfare sf] ?kdf k|of]u uèof] . Tolta]nf aGb'ssf] uf]nL / /]l*of]sf] af]nL p:t} lyP . To;nfO{ battle of the air wave sf] gfdaf^ AofVof ul/of] .

To;kl% o'/f]ksf sltko b]zn] klg /]l*of]nfO{ pkof]u ug{ nflu k¥of] . p;n] Radio free Europe and Radio liberty sf] wf/)ff cl# ;fl/Psf] kfpg ;lsG% .

bf]>f] ljZj o'$ ;lsPkl% klg cd]l/sf k"“hLjfbL v]df / ;dfhafbL v]df ;f]leot ?;sf] ljrdf c#f]lift lzt o'$ ckmjfx-cold war propaganda) rln/≈of] / ?;sf] laefhgsf] cGTokl% s]jn cd]l/sf dfq} ;+rf/sf] afbzfxsf] ?kdf b]vf k/]sf] % .

o; cy{df /]l*of] hgdt a(fpg] / ;fd|fHojfbL lgoGq)f -psychological colonial campaign) sf] ?kdf ;g\ 1990 sf] bzs;Dd k|of]u eof] eg] To;kl%sf bzsdf :jtGq ;dfrf/ tfhf #^gfsf] k|:t'lt / To:tf ;dfrf/ cGt/f{li^|o :t/df uP/ ;+sng ug]{ cGt/f{li^|o ;Djfbbftfx?sf] -International reporting) k|rngdf a[l$ ePsf] % t/ sltko cj:yfdf /]l*of] kqsf/x?n] Hofg g} u'dfpg' k/]sf] klg % . ;fy} cd]l/sfn] O/fsdf u/]sf] cfqmd)f tyf ?;n] r]r]Gofdf u/]sf] ;}lgs sf/jfxLsf af/]df sltko k|]lift ;dfrf/ pgLx?sf] lxt cg's'n lyof] / To:tf ;+s^u|:t d'n's jf If]qsf cfjfhx? /]l*of] dfkm{t cfpg ;s]gg\ . To;}n] ;"rgf b|'t ultn] ;+;f/s} ax'd"No ;fwg aGb}% .

;g\ 1990 sf] bzs cl# k"“hL ;DkGgtfsf] cfwf/ lyof] eg] ca !fgn] Tof] &fp“ lnb}+% . ;"rgfsf] k|jfxnfO{ /f]Sg / cfkm\gf] lxt cg's"n pkof]u jf cGo /fi^|dfly a}rfl/s ;fd|fHoafb yf]kg{ sf]lzz ug]{ /fi^| cfkm}nfO{ cGwsf/lt/ ws]N% .

clxn]sf] ljZjdf /fhgLlt, cy{tGq, lzIff, dgf]/œhg ;a} s'/fnfO{ ;"rgf / !fgn] *f]¥ofp% . wgjfg, la$fg aGg xf];\ ;a}sf nflu ;"rgf rflxG% . x/]s b]zsf] zlQmsf] ?kdf ;+rf/ ljsl;t x'“b}% / dflg;sf clwsf/sf nflu klg ;"rgf / ;+rf/ ckl/xfo{ aGb}% . o;y{ klg /]l*of] Unf]an ldl*ofsf] ?kdf kl/)ft ePsf]% . To;dfly e" ” pku|x k|)ffnLn] If)fe/d} ;"rgf Unf]an u/]sf] % .

g]kfnsf] ;Gbe{df klg /]l*of] g]kfnn] ;/sf/sf] d'v tfSg] xf]Og cfkm\gf] v'§fdf pleg' / cfTdlg)f{odf ljZjf; ug'{ h?/L % / ;To, lgZkIf ;dfrf/ k|;f/)f ug{ ;/sf/L cfb]zsf] OGthf/ xf]Og :jljj]s gLlt clVtof/ u/]df hgd'lv x'g ;SYof] . To;}u/L a}rfl/s :jtGqtf dfly ;/sf/, ;Qf jf /fhgLlt s]Gb|x?n] c+s'z nufpg' x'“b}g .

/]l*of] FM ldl*ofsf k|;f/)f ug]{ :^];g k|fo sf&df)*f} d} s]lGb|t x'gfn] If]lqo dxTjsf ;dfrf/n] hlt kfpg' kg]{ xf] Tolt kfPsf] %}g .

cGTodf, /]l*of] ;d'bfosf ;a} ;b:ox?sf] ;femf ;DklQ xf] . /]l*of] :^];gleq k|;f/)f x'g] sfo{qmddf tfhf #^gf, ;a}sf] ;dfg ;dfrf/df kx'“r, s;}sf] k|efjaf^ ^f(f ;fy} ;fdflhs ;Gb]z / ;fdflhs efjgf x'g] vfnsf] x'g ckl/xfo{ ePsf] % . o;f] ePdf /]l*of] k|lt ljsl;n / ljsf;f]Gd'v d'n'ssf ;a} gful/sx?sf] ljZjf; lg/Gt/ sfod /lx/xg]% .

bf];|f] ljZj o'4 cufl8 /]l8of]sf] k|efj

/]l8of]sf] ljsf; qmdM

/]l8of]sf] ljsfz qmdsf] r/0fnfO{ b'O{efudf jlu{s/0f ul/ JofVof ug{ ;lsG5 .

-!_ /]l8of]sf] ;}4flGts cfljZsf/sf] r/0f .

-@_ /]l8of]sf] Jojxfl/s / k|ljlw cfljZsf/sf] r/0f .

;}4flGts cfljZsf/sf r/0fM

/]l8of]sf] ;}4flGts r/0fnfO{ rrf{ ug'{ kbf{ /]l8of]sf] cjwf/0ff dflg;df s;/L k}bf eof] eGg] af/] hfgsf/L x'g' clt cfjZos x'G5 . /]l8of]sf] k|ljlw cfljZsf/ x'g' eGbf klxnf ;}4flGts ?kdf :s6Nof08sf ef}lts zf:qL …h]D;=;L= dfS;j]nÚ -James C. Mxwell_ n] ;g\ !*^) sf] bzsd} /]l8of]sf] l;4fGtsf] cfljZsf/ u/]sf lyP . pgn] Toltg} j]nf g} a|Dxf08df ljB'lto t/Ëx? /]l8of] t/Ën] sfd ul//x]sf] x'G5 eGg] ;DaGwdf cg'zGwfgubf{, /]l8of] t/Ë klg ;+ej 5 eGg] ;}4flGts cjWff/0ffsf] ljsf; u/] .

To:t}, hd{gLsf ef}lts zf:qL x]lG/sn xh{-Heniricle Hertz_n] ;g\ !**) sf] bzs;Dd ulx/f] cWoog / cg';Gwfg ul/ cGtl/Ifdf k|sf; / tfk eP h:t} t/Ësf] ?kdf ljB'tLo k|jfx klg ljBdfg /x]sf] tYo kQf nufP / h]D; l;= dfSj]nn] klxn] g} k|ltkfbg u/]sf l;4fGt /]l8of] ;+ej 5 eGg] tYonfO{ k'gM k'li6 klg u/]sf lyP . o;/L ;}4flGts ?kdf ljåfgx?n] nfdf] ;dosf] cg';Gwfg kl5 /]l8of] t/Ë ;Dej 5 eGg] ;}4flGts cjwf/0ffsf] ljsf; ePsf] kfOG5 .

Aojxfl/s / k|ljlw cfljZsf/sf] r/0fM

Aojxfl/s kIfdf /]l8of]sf] k|fljlws ?kdf r/0fa4 ePsf cfljZsf/ / ljsf;nfO{ lng ;lsG5 . ;g\, !*#% df cd]l/sfsf gful/s Samuel F. B. Morse n] tf//lxt 6]lnu|fd ;Gb]Zf k7fpg] pks/0f Morse code sf] klxnf]kN6 cfljZsf/ u/] . h'g Protrule metal bar sf] ;xfotfn] WjgLx? dfq k7fpg ;lsg] lyof] . o; k|ljlwnfO{ 6]lnu|fkm k7fpg] ;fwgsf] ?kdf k|of]u ul/Psf] lyof] . o;}ul/ ;g\ !*$$ b]lv !*%^ df cfGb| dxf;fu/ d'gL lj5\ofOPsf] 6]lnu|fkm s]a'n nfO{gn] Ps xb;Dd Ps/fi6« / csf]{ /fi6« ;fy} 6fk' 6fk' aLrdf klg ;Gb]z k7fpg ;lsPsf] lyof] .

;f]xL k|ljlw Morse Code sf] ;xfotf lnO{ O6fnLsf gful/s hL= dfsf]{gLn] ;g\ !*(% df a]tf/ WjgL ;+s]t k|ljwLsf] cfljisf/ u/]sf lyP . ;g\ !()^ df /]l8of] t/Ëdf klxnf]kN6 dflg;sf] af]nL k|;f/0f ug{ ;lsof] o;/L af]nL k|;f/0f ePkl5 t/Ësf] gfdfs/0f ug]{ qmddf æ/]l8of]Æ eg]/ gfdfs/0f ul/of] . h'g gfd cfh;Dd klg ljZj e/L g} k|rngdf 5 .

To;kl5 O6fnLb]lv cfGb| dxf;fu/ kf/L OËNof08;Dd /]l8of] lk|mSj]G;L af6 l;Ugn k7fpg ;kmn eof] eg] ;g\ !(!% kl5 cd]l/sf s} AT & T Company n] cd]l/sfsf] cfln{Ë6gaf6 k]l/;sf] cfOkm]n 6fj/;Dd ;Gb]z k7fpg ;lsPsf] lyof] . t/ /]l8of]n] Aoj;flos ?kdf, ;g\ !(@) df hL= dfsf]{gL cd]l/sf uO{ Westing House sf] KDKA Company ;Fu ldln Aoj;flos ?kdf /]l8of] z'? u/]sf lyP . o;/L /]l8of]sf] k|ljlw;Fu} k|;f/0f ;fdfu|L lgdf{0fdf klg k|ult x'Fb} cfPsf] kfOG5 .

/]l8of]sf] k|of]u / k|efjM

/]l8of] k|ljlwsf] ljsf;qmd;Fu} Pp6f zlQmzfnL dfWodsf] ?kdf /]l8of]nfO{ k|of]u ug]{ qmd klg a9\b} uof] . /]l8of]nfO{ s;n] s;/L k|of]u u¥of] eGg] ;Gbe{df rrf{ ug'{kbf{, cd]l/sfn] cfkm\gf hËL hxfhx?nfO{ /]l8of] dfkm{t cfb]z lbg] sfo{ z'? u¥of] h;nfO{ k|;f/0f jf æa|f]8sf:6Æ eGg yflnof] . Tolt a]nfb]lv g} /]l8of]sf] k|of]udf l;ldttf lbg yflnPsf] kfpg ;lsG5 . ;f]xL s'/fnfO{ Wofgdf /flv ;g\ !(!) df Wireless Ship Act cd]l/sfn] kfl/t u¥of] . To;df s] elgPsf] lyof] eg], /]l8of] ;]6 hxfhx?df dfq k|of]u ug{ kfpg] / cGo 7fpFdf k|of]u ug{ gkfpg] eGg] k|fjwfg lyof] . t/ o:tf] Act cfPsf] b'O{jif{ kl5 ;g\ !(!@ df cfP/ /]l8of] ;]6 ;j{;fwf/0fn] klg k|of]u ug{ kfpg] ul/ /]l8of] PS6 kfl/t ePkl5 dfq} ;j{;fwf/0fn] /]l8of] ;'Gg kfPsf lyP . ;g\ !(@& df sf]nlDaof a|f]8sfl:6Ë l;:6dsf] u7g ePkl5 eg] !^ j6f zx/L s]Gb|x?af6 /]l8of] sf] k|;f/0f z'? x'g yfNof] .

k|yd ljZjo'4kl5, ljleGg /fi6«x?n] /]l8of]nfO{ n8fO{ lhTg] dfWod / ljkIfsf] dgf]jn lu/fpg] k|f]kf]uf08fsf] ?kdf /]l8of]nfO{ k|of]u u/]sf] kfOG5 . To:t} sltko ljsl;t /fi6«sf ;]gf nufot ;'/Iff lgsfon] cfkm\gf] cfGtl/s ;~rf/ cfbfg–k|bfg ug{ /]l8of]sf] k|of]u u/]sf lyP .

cfd ;~rf/ ljsf;qmd;Fu} 8f]ldg]G6 Kof/fl8hd\ leq /x]/ Denis McQuail n] b'O{j6f Theory sf] AofVof u/]sf 5g\ . Mass Society Theory / Propaganda Theory h; cGtu{t k|f]kf]uf08f l;4fGtnfO{ ljleGg zf;sx?n] ljleGg tl/sfn] k|of]u u/] cg';f/ k|f]kf]uf08f l;4fGtnfO{ # efudf alu{s/0f u/]sf 5g\ . Black, White / Grey.

em'6f ;Gb]z dfq} k|;f/0f ug]{, ;To ;Gb]z dfq} k|;f/0f ug]{ / ;fFrf] / em'6f ;dfrf/ af/Daf/ k|;f/0f ubf{ ;Gb]z df s'g ;fFrf] jf em'6f] kQf nufpg k|fksx?nfO{ ufx|f] kg]{ x'G5 . o;/L ;Gb]znfO{ k|;f/0f ul/ e|d 5g{ ;lsG5 eg]/ pNn]v u/]sf] kfOG5 . o;/L zf;sx?n] /]l8of]nfO{ tLg lsl;dsf] k|f]kf]uf08fdf k|of]u u/]sf lyP . hd{gLsf zf;s lx6n/n] ANofs k|f]kf]uf08f l;4fGtsf] k|of]u u/]/ hgtfnfO{ e|d 5g]{ / zf;g ug]{ u/]sf lyP . o;}u/L k|yd ljZjo'4df k|f]kf]uf08f l;4fGtsf] k|of]u hd{gL /fHon] u/]kl5 To;} k|;ËnfO{ ldNg] u/L u|Lg (Grin_ eGg] ljåfgn] hj{h:t u/]/ s'g} klg /fHosf] æ/Iff zlQmÆ cfkm\gf] sAhfdf lng ljleGg tl/sfx? ckgfpg' kb{5 h;dWo] /]l8of] Pp6f zlQmzfnL dfWod xf] eg]sf 5g\ .Æ ;g\ !(#* cS6f]j/df H.C. Wells sf] /]l8of] gf6s "The War of the World" k|;f/0f ul/;s]kl5 Go"of]s{ / Go" hl;{sf xhf/f}+ dflg;x? ;8sdf efubf}8 ug{ yfn]sf lyP . /]l8of]sf] k|efj s:tf] lyof] eGg] s'/f o; gf6s k|;f/0fn] ;|f]tfx?df Pp6f eofjx l:ylt NofPsf] lyof] . /]l8of] Pp6f zlQmzfnL dfWod /x]5 / ;|f]tfx?nfO{ cfkm\gf] sAhfdf lng ;kmn /x]5 . ldl8of zlQmzfnL x'G5 t/ ;|f]tf eg]sf s]xL klg xf]Ogg\ logLx? Psf]xf]/f x'G5g\ . eGg] l;4fGtn] sfd u/]sf] kfpg ;lsG5 .

;g\ !($) sf] bzsdf Harold Lasswell n] cg';Gwfg u/]/ Pp6f l;4fGt Theory lgsfn] h;nfO{ M Who Says What in which Channel to Whom with what effects eg]/ AofVof ul/of] .

vf;u/L /]l8of]nfO{ bf];|f] ljZjo'4 eGbf cufl8 gfhL zf;s lx6n/n] k|f]kf]uf08f 6'N;sf] ?kdf /]l8of]nfO{ k|of]u u/]sf] lgZsif{ lgSnG5 . pgn] dgf]a}1flgs, ljho xft kfg{ /]l8of]nfO{ ;kmn ;fwgsf] ?kdf pkof]u u/] . ;fy} Pp6f k|f]kf]uf08f ldlgli6« g} u7g ul/, of]hgfa4 ?kd} /]l8of] dfkm{t hgtfdf e|d km}nfpg yfn]kl5 pgsf] p2]Zo /]l8of]nfO{ Pp6f ;|f]tf Psf]xf]/f] agfpg] / cfkm\gf] a;df /flv/xg] ;f]r ePsf] kfpg ;lsG5 .

To;}u/L zLt o'4sf cjlwdf b'O{ w'|j cd]l/sf / ;f]leot o"lgogn] cfkm\gf] k"FhLjfbL / ;dfhjfbL bz{gnfO{ ljZjAofkL k'¥ofpg /]l8of]nfO{ k|rf/ k|;f/sf] dfWod agfP eg] wd{ k|rf/df ;d]t /]l8of]sf] k|of]u u/]sf] kfOG5 . ;du|df bf];|f] ljZjo'4 cl3 /]l8of]nfO{ k"FhLjfbL v]df cd]l/sfn] cfkm\gf] gLlt cg's'n ljZjsf cGo ;fgf / ;~rf/df kx'Fr gk'u]sf /fi6«nfO{ cfkm"tkm{ cfsif{0f ug{ k|f]kf]uf08f 6'N;sf] ?kdf a9L k|of]u u¥of] / ljleGg b]zx?df /]l8of] :6]zg cfkm\g} nufgLdf vf]n]/ If]lqo ;Gt'ng sfod ug]{ sf]l;; u/]sf] lyof] eg] ;fDojfbL /fi6« ?;n] klg sDo'lgi6 wf/sf sltko /fi6«df ks8 sfod ug{ To:t} tl/sfx? k|of]u uYof]{ . ljz]if u/]/ tnsf /]l8of] Rofgnx?n] a9L dfqfdf bf]>f] ljZj o'4 cl3 ;dfrf/ klg s]lx dfqfdf lyof] t/ ;dfrf/ ePklg To;n] k"0f{?kdf k|f]kf]uf08fsf] ?kdf sfd u/]sf] kfOG5 .

Voice of America:

ljZjsf rlr{t /]l8of] k|;f/0f :6]zgx?dWo] VOA klg Ps xf] . VOA lålto ljZjo'4df hd{gLkIfsf] ljkIfdf o'4sf] k|f]kf]uf08f cfkm\gf ;}lgsx?nfO{ k|f]T;fxg ug]{ / lj/f]wLsf ;}lgs tyf n8fs'nfO{ lg/fz agpg] / ysf{pg] sfo{ cyf{t cd]l/sL k|efj km}nfpg] p2]Zon] ;g\ !($@ km]j|'j/L $ df :yfkgf ePsf] lyof] . of] cd]l/sfsf] k|f]kf]uf08f d]lzg/L g} lyof] . cd]l/sfn] EjfO; ckm cd]l/sf /]l8of] o; sf/0fn] klg cfkm\gf] ldl8ofdfkm{t ljZjdf jr{Zj sfod ug]{ p2]Zo /flv o;sf] :yfkgf u/]sf] lyof] .

z'?df EjfO; ckm cd]l/sf Pp6f ;"rgf Ph]G;Lsf ?kdf dfq k|of]u ePsf] lyPg ls n8fFO{df csf]{ xltof/sf] ?kdf klg of] b]vf k/]sf] lyof] . o;sf] sfd n8fO{sf ;dodf zq' jf ljkIfsf jf/] gsf/fTds k|rf/ ug'{ lyof] . o;sf sfo{qmd ToxL p2]Zo k|fKtLsf nflu lyP . EjfO; ckm cd]l/sfsf p2]Zojf/] plgx?n] klxnf] k|;f/0fdf s] eg]sf lyP eg] ÆDaily at this time, the news may be good or bad. We shall tell the truth." o;af6 klg s] :ki6 x'G5 eg] b}lgs ;dfrf/ /fd|f] xf]; jf g/fd|f] t/ xfdLn] ;Fw} ;To ;dfrf/ g} lbg' k5{ eGg] lyof] . t/ Aojxf/df To:tf] kfOPsf] lyPg .

BBC

;g\ !(@@ df lj|l6; j|f]8sfl:6Ë skf{]/];gåf/f /]l8of] k|;f/0f z'? eof] . of] sDkgL z'?df :jb]zL 3/]n' tf/ ljlxg l/l;e/ ljqm]tfnfO{ pTkfbgsf af/] hfgsf/L / dgf]/~hg lbg] lx;fjn] :yfkgf ePsf] lyof] . ;g\ !(@& df dfq} aL=aL=;L= ;fj{hlgs ;+:yfsf ?kdf kl/0ft ePsf] xf] . o;n] ;sf/fTds k|efj km}nfpg ;kmn ePsf] lyof] . vf;ul/ bf]>f] ljZjo'4 x'g' cufl8 ;"rgf / dgf]/~hgsf ;fdfu|Lx? ljljl; dfkm{t k|;f/0f x'Gy] .

j[l6;x?n] cfkm\gf] ;fd|fHo hdfpg ef/tdf ;d]t /]l8of] :6]zg ;g\ !(@$ df lglh ?kdf db|f; Pd]Rof]/ Snjsf ?kdf leq\ofP . s]lx :yflgo zf}lvg JolQmx? ldn]/ ;Lldt AolQmdf dfq} /]l8of] lkm|SjOG;L k'Ug] ul/ :yfkgf u/] / cfkm\gf] cg's'n x'g] ;dfrf/ k|;f/ ul/of] . ;g\ !(@& lt/ j[l6; ;/sf/n] cfkm}+n] k"0f{ :jfldTjsf] ?kdf k|of]u u¥of] . pklgj]zsf ;dodf cfkm\gf] ;/sf/sf lj?4df ef/tLo hgtf ghfpg eGgsf lglDt cfkm\gf kIfsf PstkmL{ ;"rgf ;Gb]zx? k|;f/ ug]{ uy{] .

AIR

cn OlG8of /]l8of] dfkm{t ;/sf/åf/f lgb]{lzt gLlt k|rf/ k|;f/ ug{ p2]Zosf;fy o; /]l8of]sf] :yfkgf ul/Psf] lyof] . h; cg';f/ cn OlG8of /]l8of] dfkm{t ;/sf/n] To;j]nf ;/sf/n] /fi6«sf] ljsf;sf] lglDt hf/L u/]sf gLlt tyf sfo{qmdx? k|;f/0f ug{] dfWodsf ?kdf of] /]l8of]sf] k|of]u u/]sf] lyof] / o;n] ef/tLo hgtfdf ;/sf/sf gLlt / lgdf{0fsf jf/]df cfkm" ;";'lrt x'g kfpFbf ;s/fTds g} k|efj kf/]sf] lyof] . cn OlG8of /]l8of]af6 ;"rgf, ;Gb]z, cfkm\g} ;+:s[lt tyf b]zsf af/]df hfGg] / o;n] j}rfl/s, /fhg}lts hfu?s u/fpg ;xof]u k'u]sf] kfOG5 . h;af6 ef/tLo hgtf :jR5 / lgikIf ;"rgf ;Gb]z / dgf]/~hgsf ;fdfu|L ;'Gg kfpFbf jiff}{+b]lv pklgj]zdf v'lDrPsf hgtfdf Pp6f 7"nf] km8\sf] df/]sf] h:tf] dxz'; ul/Psf] lyof] .

Radio Mosco:

lj;f}+ ztflAbsf] k"jf{4 lt/ ;f]leo; k|;f/0f ;]jfnfO{ km}nfpg ;kmn eof] . ;g\ !(@% gf]e]Dj/df klxnf]k6s 36gf:ynsf] ;dfrf/ c+u|]hL, km|]Gr / hd{g efiffdf k|;f/0f ul/of] . of] cS6f]j/ qmfGtLsf ;fdfu|Lx?nfO{ ljz]if l/kf]6{sf ?kdf k|:t't ul/Psf] lyof] . k|f]kf]uf08f km}nfpg cyjf qmflGtsf kIfdf jsfnt ug{df g} o;n] clwsf+z ;do vr]{sf] lyof] . ;g\ !(@* kl5 snsf/vfgfsf sfdbf/sf nflu z}lIfs sfo{qmdx? / ls;fgsf nflu /]l8of] ljZjljBfno z'? u/]sf] kfOG5 . ;g\ !(@( df cfP/ dhb'/, ls;fg, sfdbf/, sDo'lgi6 kf6L{sf sfo{stf{sf] kIfdf k|f]kf]uf08fsf] ?kdf /]l8of] d:sf]nfO{ k|of]u ul/of] . gfhLx?sf lj?4 n8fO{sf] a]nf d'Vo e"ldsf v]n]sf] kfOG5 .

To;kl5sf bzsx?df eg] /]l8of] tfhf 36gf ;dfrf/, dgf]/~hg, lzIffk|b sfo{qmd k|;f/0f ug]{ ;+oGqsf] ?kdf a9L s]lGb|t ePsf] b]lvG5 . !( cf}+ ;tfAbLsf] k|f/Dedf cfPsf] /]l8of]n] ;xh} ?kdf l;df kf/ u¥of]{ / cGt{/fli6«o ;~rf/ dfWodsf] ?kdf ljsl;t eof] . ljz]if u/L ;g\ !(@& kl5 Short Wave sf] k|f/De ePkl5 /]l8of] sf] ;|f]tf;Fusf] ;fIfftsf/ :yfO{ / e/kbf]{ dfWodsf] ?kdf cfof] To;kl5 of]hgf tyf ljsf;nfO{ ;xof]u k'¥ofpg], lzIffd'ns sfo{qmdx? k|;f/0f ug]{ dfWodsf] ?kdf /]l8of] ljsl;t ePsf] / k|of]u klg ToxL cg';f/ a9\b} uPsf] kfOG5 .

/]l8of] k|efjjf/] cg';Gwfg M

cfd ;~rf/ dfWod ;~rfng u/]/ dfq x'Fb}g . ltgsf] jf:tljs pkef]Qmf sf] x'g\ < pgLx?nfO{ /]l8of]af6 k|;f/0f u/]sf] ;Gb]z s:tf] nfU5 < ;Gb]zn] pgLx?df s:tf] k|efj kfb{5 < oL cflb ;jfnsf] hjfkm kfpg cfd;~rf/ ;DaGwL cg';Gwfgsf] ljsf; ePsf] xf] . /]l8of] ;|f]tf slthgf 5g\ < / o;sf sfo{qmdx?af6 slthgf k|efljt x'G5g < eGg] lh1f;f lj1fkgbftfx?n] cWoog ug{ yfn] kl5 o; lsl;dsf] cg';Gwfgsf] k|f/De ePsf] xf] .

;'?df cfd;~rf/sf] hGd ePsf] lyPg . vf]h cg';Gwfg x'Gy] s]jn ;dfhzf:q, /fhgLltzf:q / cy{zf:qsf If]qdf . tL If]qsf l;4fGtx? k|of]u ub}{ ;~rf/nfO{ klg ;dflxt ul/Gy] t/ cfd;~rf/sf] If]qdf vf]hL tyf cg';Gwfg eg] kl5 ePsf] kfOG5 hlta]nf ;~rf/nfO{ oftfoft Aoj:yf;Fu} hf]8g] Tolta]nfsf] k|rng lyof] .

;g\ !(@) df /]l8of] ljZjdf k|;f/0f e} ;s]sf] lyof] . ;g\ !(@@ df k|yd ljZjo'4sf ;dodf ePsf k|f]kf]uf08fnfO{ lnP/ cWoog ul/of] . o;}nfO{ cfd ;~rf/ OLtxfF;df klxnf] v'6lsnf] dflgG5 . ;g\ !(#) lt/ /]l8of]n] ;|f]tfx?df kf/]sf] k|efjsf jf/]df cg';Gwfg ePsf] lyof] . o;af6 /]l8of] zlQmzfnL dfWod xf] eGg] kQf nfu]sf] lyof] . ;|f]tf eg]sf s]xL klg xf]Ogg\ ;~rf/ dfWod eg]sf] zlQmzfnL dfWod xf] eGg] l;4fGtsf] ljsf; eof] .

lgisif{ M

bf];|f] ljZjo'4 cufl8 /]l8of]nfO{ w]/}n] cfkm\gf] cg's'n agfpg, hgtfnfO{ Pstkm{ jf Psf]xf]/f] agfpg] p2]Zoaf6 k|]l/t ePsf] kfO{G5 . To;afx]s cGo p2]Zo eg] Tolt kfO{b}g . bf];|f] ljZjo'4 cl3 /]l8of]nfO{ ;"rgf / ;dfrf/ eGbf klg cGo ljleGg p2]Zon] k|of]u ul/Psf] kfOG5 .

;g\ !(#) b]lv !($% ;Dd /]l8of]nfO{ hgtfsf] k|ToIf ;/f]sf/ /fVg] ;jfnx?sf dfly lgoGq0f / b'Zdg lj?4 k|f]kf]uf08f km}nfpg] ;fwgsf] ?kdf k|of]u ul/of] / hgtfx?df klg To:t} k|efj k¥of] . ev{/ ev{/ ljsl;t ePsf] /]l8of]nfO{ /fhgLlts / zf;sLo :jfy{ k"lt{sf nflu, pklgj]znfO{ sfod u/fpgsf nflu / zf;g l6sfpgsf nflu hgtfdf gs/fTds xf];\ jf ;sf/fTds h:tf] k|efj kf/]klg k|efjn] cfkm"x?nfO{ ;xof]u k'¥ofcf];\ eGg] lyof] . hgtfx?df /]l8of]sf] af]nL uf]nL h:tf] ePsf] lyof] . Bullet Theory n] sfd u/]sf] kfOG5 . ;Gb]z k|jfx ug]{ / k|fks n] kfpg] ljlQs} k|efj kg]{ h:n] ubf{ hgtfx? /]l8of] ;Gb]zaf6 Psf]xf]/f] agfOPsf lyP . ;fy;fy} r]tgfsf] ljsf;;Fu} dflg;x?df PstkmL{ ;"rgf cfkm"dfly yf]k/]sf] dx;"; x'g yfNof] eg] s'g ;Gb]z ;To xf] / s'g ;Gb]z em'6 xf] < Tof] 5'§ofpg ;Sg] ePkl5 To:tf zf;ssf lj?4 j}rfl/s :jtGqtf ;fy;fy} Media nfO{ klg :jtGq / lg:kIf agfpg cfGbf]ng ;d]t ul/P . Negative Massage flow sf] Impact n] cGttM zf;sx? hgtfdfem cfnf]lrt aGg k'u] . To:tf zf;sx?n] b]z / hgtfdfly yf]k/]sf] gsf/fTds ;Gb]z k|jfxn] cGtt ToxL+ d'n'sx?sf] :jtGqtfdf an k'u]sf] Oltxf; kfpg ;lsG5 .

To;kl5sf ;dodf /]l8of] nfO{ ;"rgfd"ns, ljsf;d"ns, ;Gb]zd"ns, dgf]/~hgfTds / lzIffd"ns dfWodsf] ?kdf k|of]u ug{ yflnof] . ;fy} ljleGg tl/sfaf6 /]l8of]sf] k|efj / /]l8of]nfO{ cfd;~rf/;Fu hf]8]/ x]g{ yflnof] . o;/L k|of]uubf{ ljsf; lgdf{0f, r]tgfdf clea[l4, lzIffdf hf]8, Aoj;flostf tkm{ pGd'v, pTkfbgdf a[l4, Pscfk;df ;xof]u / ;b\efj, cg'zf;g h:tf s'/fx?df kl/jt{g cfof] . To;} u/L /]l8of]sf] k|efjsf ljifodf klg cg';Gwfgx? x'g yfn] . o;/L bf];|f] ljZj o'4;Dd /]l8of]sf] k|efjnfO{ oxfF pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 .

;Gbe{ ;fdfu|L

!_ Daya Kishan Thussu, 'International Communication/Continuity and Change (Page 26)

@_ kqsfl/tfsf] xft] lstfj, k|sfzs g]kfn k|]; OlG:6Ro"6 -k]h g+= !$!_

#_ >L/fd vgfn, cfd;+rf/sf] kl/ro, ljBfyL{ k':ts e08f/ -k]h %^_

$_ kqsfl/tfsf] ljZj Oltxf;, ef–!, cRo'tafa' sf]O/fnf, -k]h !#@^_

%_ kf}8]n ab|L, -Snf;gf]6_

^_ /fO{ nfn b]pzf, -Snf;gf]6_

ljZj /fhgLltdf /]l8of] kqsfl/tfsf] k|of]u

/ /]l8of]df o;sf] k|efj

/]l8of]sf] cflj:sf/;Fu} o;sf] k|of]u k|f]kfuf08f km}nfpgsf nflu x'g yfNof] . To:tf] k|of]un] /]l8of]sf] ljsf;df ;d]t dxTjk"0f{ e"ldsf v]Nof] . klxnf] ljZj o'4;Fu} – zf;sx?nfO{ cfˆgf]– b]zleq cfˆgf] kIfdf hgdt agfpg / b]zaflx/ k|f]kfuf08f km}nfpg klg /]l8of] a/bfg ;fljt eof] .

zf;sx?n] tTsfn} /]l8of] z}lgs / xftxltof/ h:t} o'4sf] dxTjk"0f{ j:t' xf] eGg] s'/f a'em] . o;sf] kl/0ffd:j?k Tolt a]nf;Dd a}1flgsx?sf] k|of]u / cg';Gwfgsf] ljifoj:t' /xFb} cfPsf] /]l8of]df zf;sx¿sf] Wofg uof]] . o;af6 /]l8of] ;j{;fwf/0fn] geO zf;ssf] sAhfdf /xg yfN]f

36gf

ah]6 ;|f]t ;fwg / /]l8of]sf] k|efjnfO{ ?;L sDo'lgi6x?n] /fd|f];Fu a'em] / k|ydk6s k|of]u klg u/] . klxnf] k6s ;g\ !(!& df ePsf] ¿;L qmflGtdf n]lggn] lbPsf] ;Gb]znfO{ tf//lxt dfWoodaf6 k|jflxt ul/of] . To:t} ljZjdf klxnf] k6s ;6{j]esf] dfWoodaf6 /]l8of] k|;f/0f klg ;g\ !(@% df ?;af6} eof] . To;sf] kfFr jif{kl5 ?; All-Union Radio n] hd{g km|]Gr tyf c+u|]hL efiffdf sDo'lgi6 gLlt k|rf/ ug{ yfNof] .

;g\ !(## df hd{gLdf gfhLx? ;Qfdf cfPkl5 s'6gLlt, zlQm / /fhgLltsf nflu Radio sf] k|of]u emg tLj| eof] . lx6n/sf k|f]kfuf08f dGqL hf];]km uf]ojN;n] /]l8of] k|;f/0fnfO{ cfˆgf] k|f]kfuf08f km}nfpg] dxTjk"0f{ ;fwg 7fGy] . pgsf] egfO{ lyof], “Real broadcasting is true propaganda,

propaganda means fighting on all battlefield of the spirit, generating, multiplying, destroying. Our propaganda is determined by what we call German race, blood and nation”.

;g\ !(#% df gfhLn] cfˆgf] hftLo efjgfo'Qm ;Gb]z blIf0f cd]l/sf / ci6«]lnofdf /x]sf hd{g;dIf km}nfpg yfn] . To;sf nflu ch]{G6Lgfaf6 k|;f/0f ug{ yflnof] . To;kl5 pgLx?sf] cGt/f{li6«o k|;f/0f clk|msL, c/]aL / lxGbL efiffdf x'g yfNof] . ;g\ !($% ;Dd cfOk'Ubf hd{g /]l8of] %) eGbfa9L efiffdf k|;fl/t x'g yfNof] .

To:t} O6fnLsf tfgfzfx d';f]lngLn] cfˆgf] kmfF;LjfbL ljrf/ km}nfpg /]l8of]s} k|of]u u/] . vf;u/L Oyf]lkofdf x:tIf]k ubf{ tyf :k]lg; u[xo'4df k|mfG;L;sf] km|Gsf]nfO{ ;3fpFbf pgn] æ/]l8of] af/LÆ gfds /]l8of] :6];g 6\o'g ug{sf nflu c/]ljogx?nfO{ /]l8of] ;]6 afF8]sf lyP . o;n] BBC nfO{ kfg]{ c/aL efiffdf k|;f/0f ug{ afWo kf¥of] .

k|efj

/]l8of]sf] k|of]u Power Politics sf] nflu ul/P kl5 o;sf] lj:tf/sf nflu /fHosf] ;|f]t / ;fwg vr{ x'g yfNof] k|]; sf] cflj:sf/ kl5 Tof] cfd;+~rf/sf] dfWod aGg hlt ;do nfu]sf] lyof] . /]l8of]sf] cflj:sf/kl5 Tof] eGbf sof}+ u'0ff sd ;dodf of] cfd;~rf/ dfWod aGg'df /]l8of]k|lt zf;sn] lbPsf] rfv klg Pp6f sf/0f lyof]] . 5fkf dfWoodsf] cflj:sf/ ;g\ !$%# kl5 !^^% df uP/ dfq klqsf 5flkg yfn]sf] lyof]. /]l8of]sf] cflj:sf/ ;g\ !()@ df ePkl5 To;sf] @) jif{ tTsfn cfd;~rf/sf] ?kdf k|of]u x'g yfNof] .

cGt/f{li6«o If]qdf cfˆgf] kx'Fr :yflkt ug{ zf;sx?n] u/]sf] k|of;n] /]l8of] :6];gsf] ¿k cGt/f{li6«o agfOlbof] . pbfx/0fsf nflu ;g\ !(!^ df 8]le8 ;fgf]{kmn] a]tf/sf] dfWodaf6 lgoldt ?kdf /]l8of] k|+;f/0f ug{] of]hgf agfP klg ljZjo'4df /]l8of]nfO{ z}lgs sfddf k|of]u ug{ yfn]kl5 pSt of]hgf /f]lsof] . oBkL o'4n] /]l8of]df ;|f]tf ;+Vof eg] cTolws a9fof] . ;g\ !(@# df /]l8of] ;]6sf nflu nfO;G; lng] a]nfotLx¿sf] ;+Vof () xhf/ /x]sf]df bf];|f] ljZjo'4 ;'? x'F+bf () nfv k'u]sf] lyof].

bf];|f] ljZjo'4sf] ;do

36gfx¿

bf];|f] ljZjo'4df ;+nUg b'O{ kIfx?n] /]l8of]sf] IfdtfnfO{ e/k"/ pkof]u u/] . hfkfgn] p; k|;f/0f ;F:yf Nipan Hoso Kyoka -NHK_ dfkm{t\ cfˆgf] k|f]kfug08fnfO{ cl3 a9fof] . o;n] blIf0f–k"jL{ tyf k"jL{ Pl;ofnfO{ nlIft u/L k|;f/0f ug{ yfNof] . ;fy} o;n] cd]l/sfsf] klZrdL efunfO{ ;d]t nlIft u/L k|;f/0f yfNof] . lx6n/sf] hdgL{, d';f]lngLsf] O6fnLn] klg /]l8of]nfO{ To;} u/LO pkof]u u/] .

BBC sf] hGd g} Empire Service sf] ?kdf ePsf] lyof] . a]nfotsf\] ljb]z dfldnf;DaGwL dGqfnosf] cfly{s ;|f]tdf rNg] of] ;+:yfsf] :yfkgf g} ljZje/ 5l/P/ /x]sf] pklgj]z /fi6«aLr ;~rf/ u/fpg' lyof] . BBC af6 bf];|f] ljZjo'4sf] cGTo;Ddf #( j6f efiffdf /]l8of] k|;f/0f x'g yfNof] .

k|mfG; cflwg:y e"efudf rn]sf] cfGbf]ngsf] k|ltsf/ ug{ BBC n] o'4sfnLg ;dodf BBC'S k|m]Gr ;le{; ;'? u/]sf] lyof] To;nfO{ k|]mGr ;]gf k|d'v hg/n 8] ufpn] (De Gaulle) n] pklgj]zx?df rn]sf] cfGbf]ng lg:th kfg]{ pkfosf] k|of]u u/]sf lyP .

o'4df a]nfot / cd]l/sL u7aGwgdf ;fd]n ?;sf] ;fdfGo ;+:yf;Fu ldn]/ The Shadow of the Swastika gfds gf6s >[vnf klg k|:t't ug{ yfNof] .

k|efj

ljZjo'4n] /]l8of] k|f]kfuf08fsf] ;fwg ePsf] s'/fnfO{ yk an k'¥ofof] o;n] /]l8of] :jtGq k|;f/0fsf ;DefjgfnfO{ yk kl5 ws]Nb} zf;sx?nfO{ cfˆg} sAhfdf /fVg pS;fof] .

bf];|f] ljZjo'4 cl3 cd]l/sfdf /]l8of]nfO{ lj1fkgsf] ;fwg dfq dflgg] ul/Psf]df !($@ df Voice of America (VOA) :yfkgfkl5 cd]l/sfn] To;dfkm{t\ cfˆgf] ljZj /fgLltnfO{ cl3 a9fof] .

pklgj]z :jfy{nfO{ /Iff ug{ a]nfotn] ef/tdf NofPsf] /]l8of]n] g]kfn nufot blIf0f Pl;ofsf cGo b]zdf ;d]t /]l8of] ;'? x'g] jftfj/0f aGof]

lzto'4 / /]l8of] kqsfl/tf

36gf

lzto'4 cjlwdf bf];|f] ljZjo'4sf ljh]tf /fi6«x? b'O{ w'|jdf afFl8P . h;dWo] k"hLFjfbL d'n'sx?sf] g]t[Tj cd]l/sfn] u¥of] eg] ;fDojfbL d'n'ssf] g]t[Tj tTsffnLg ;f]leot ;+3n] u¥of] . To; cjlwdf b'j} kIfn] cf cfˆMgf] k|efj ev{/ :jtGq ePsf d'n'sx?df a9fpg=dfq xf]Og Pscsf]{sf] k|efj /f]Sg / Pscsf]{ lj?4 /0fgLlts dxTjsf b]zx?df sAhf hdfO{ k|rf/ ug{ ;d]t k|;f/0f dfWood vf; u/L /]l8of]sf] pkof]u u/] . cd]l/sL w'|jn] kF+"hLjfbL cy{ Joj:yf / k|hftGqjfbL /fhgLlts Joj:yfnfO{ dfgjLo k|ultsf] Psdfq cfwf/ ePsf] k|rf/ ub{} ;fDojfbL /fi6«sf] gsf/fTds ;dfrf/ k|jfx ug{ /]l8of] kqsfl/tfsf] k|of]u u¥of] . ;f]leot ;+3n] klg cfˆgf] k|efj ePsf /fi6«x?af6 klZrddf Joj:yf lj?4 k|rf/ k|;f/ ug{ / cfˆgf] k|efj km}nfpg /]l8of] kqsfl/tfs} pkof]u u¥of] .

;f]leot o'lgogn] sDo'lgi6 OG6/g]zngn dfkm{t\ cfˆgf] k|rf/ km}nfpg yfNof] . To; cjlwdf k"jL{} o'/f]k / cGo ;fDojfbL /fi6«sf nflu ;f]leot ;dfrf/ ;+:yf TASS k|d'v ;dfrf/ ;|f]t aGof] ;f]leot ;+3åf/f k|;fl/t ;fdu|Lx?df k"FhLjfbL a'h'{jf ju{ / ;j{xf/fju{aLrsf] åGåaf/] JofVof ljZn]if0f ul/Psf] x['GYof]] . ;Gb]z k|jfx o'/f]k]nL d'n'sx?åf/f pklgj]z ul/{sf d'n'stkm{ nlIft lyof] . To;qmddf ;g\ !($* o'uf]:nfleofsf /fi6«klt df;{n l66f]n] :jtGq k//fi6« gLlt ckgfpg vf]Hbf l66f] ;+zf]wgjfbL u2f/ eGg] ;Gb]zsf] Jofks k|rf/ k|;f/ ul/of]]

. To:t] xFu]/L / r]sf]:nfleofdf jf;f{ u'6n] sAhf ug{ hfFbf ;g\ !(%& df klg /]l8of] kqsfl/tfsf] Jofks pkef]u eof] . !(^* August df ?;L k|;f/0f !& 306faf6 a9fP/ !^* 306f k'/\ofOof] . x:tIf]k ;lsPkl5 ;]K6]Da/df k'gM k|;f/0f cjlw *$ 306fdf em¥of] .

TASS ;g\ !(^( b]lv !(&@ ;Dddf ljZjs} ;a}eGbf 7"nf] k|;f/0f ;+:yf ePsf] /]l8of] lyof] . o;n] cd]l/sfn] eGbfa9L ;do k|rf/ k|;f/ uYof]{ . TotLa]nf *$ j6f efiffdf k|;f/0f uYof]{ . ;f]leot ;+3 cfkmF+} ;+;f/sf] 7"nf] / ax'efifL b]z t 5F+b} lyof] afx\o k|;f/0f klg ;ftfdf (## 306f af6 ;g\ !(#& df (%) 306f k|ltxKtf k|;f/0f uYof]{ .

of] qmd rLg / ?;aLr åGå a9g yfn]kl5 hmg a9\of] / /0fgLlts / /fhgLlts sf/0f oL b'O{ sDo'lgi6 d'n'saLr Psn] csf]{ lj?4 k|;f/0f ug]{ sfddf /]l8of] klg /]l8of]sf] k|of]u Jofks x'g yfNof] . pbfx/0fsf nflu To;a]nf ?;n] k|ltxKtf && 306f lrlgofF efiffdf ;dfrf/ k|;f/0f ug]{ u/]sf]df åGå a9\g yfn]kl5 k|ltxKtf @)) 306f k|;f/0f ug{ yfNof] . lrgn] klg ;+zf]wgjfbL eGb} ;g\ !(&@ b]lv cGt/f{li6«o efiffdf k|;f/0f ug{ yfNof] / !(&) sf] bzs lrg ljZjsf] cGt/fli6«o efiffdf k|;f/0f ug]{ t];|f\] 7"nf] b]z aGg k'Uof] .

lzto'4 sfndf cd]l/sfsf cGt/f{li6«o k|;f/0f ;+:yfx? Voice of America, Radio leverty tyf Radio free Europ nfO{ k"/} ;/sf/L sf]ifaf6 /sd pknAw u/fOof] . VOA cd]l/sL ;/sf/sf] cflwsfl/s wf/0ff k|jfx ug]{ Radio Station dfq /x]g cd]l/sL ;"rgf Ph]G;L sf] c+usf] ?kdf sfo{ ug{ yfNof] . o;n] ;/sf/L afx]s cGo vfnsf] ljrf/nfO{ ;d]t cleJoQm x'gaf6 /f]Sof] . To;sf/0f VOA nfO{ cGt/f{li6«o ;~rf/ If]qdf cd]l/sL ;/sf/sf] Mouth piece s} ?kdf x]g{ yflnof] . ;g\ !(%) sf] sf]l/ofnL o'4sf a]nf cd]l/sL /fi6«klt x\of/L 6'|Dofgsf] k|f]kfuf08fnfO{ VOA n] /fd}||;Fu cl3 a9fof] . /fi6«klt 6'|Dofgn] clxn]sf] ;dosf a'zn] O/fs o'4sf] a]nf u/] h:t} sf]l/ofnL o'4df cd]l/sL ;+nUgtfnfO{ hfoh b]vfpg VOA sf] k|of]u u/] .

lzto'4 cjlwe/ h'g;'s} 7fpFdf åGå ePklg VOA sf] k|of]u To;}u/L ul/of] . 6«'Dofg kl5sf /fi6«klt cfOhgxfj/n] t /]l8of]dfkm{\t dgf]j}1flgs o'4 n8\g ;Nnfxfsf/x¿g} /fv]sf lyP . To;a]nf VOA n] t];|f] ljZj / sDo'lgi6 k|efj ePsf d'n'sx?df cd]l/sL hLjgz}nLsf] k|rf/ ug]{ / ToxfFsf] o'jfklQmnfO{ cd]l/sL ;kgfk|lt cfs{lif{t u/fpFb} cGTodf To;nfO{ ;f
Dojfb lj/fwL efjgfdf abNg] sfd u¥of] .

cd]l/sfn] ljZjJofkL /]l8of] lnÍsf nflu jfl;ª\6gdf d'Vofno /xg] u/L ljZje/ /]l8of] :6]zgx? /fv]sf] lyof] . p;n] blIf0f k"jL{o Pl;ofsf nflu a}Ísdf, rLgsf nflu lkmlnlkG;df, blIf0f Pl;ofsf] nflu sf]nDaf]df, pQ/ cd]l/sfsf nflu df]/Ssf]df, dWok"j{sf nflu u|L;df, blIf0f clk|msfsf nflu af]]T:jfgfdf, ;j;fxf/g clk|msfsf nflu nfOa]/Lofdf, k"jL{ o'/f]k / ;f]leot ;+3sf nflu Do'lgvdf / a]nfotdf, tyf dWo cd]l/sfsf nflu a|flhndf /]l8of] :6]zg /fVof] .

;a} :6]zgaf6 hfd ug{ g;Sg] u/L alnof] /]l8of] l;Ugn k7fOGYof] . sltko :yfgdf uf]Ko ?kdf klg 6«fG;kmd{/ /flvof] .

;g\ !(%) sf] bzsdf :yflkt Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty n] klZrd hd{gLaf6 cd]l/sL of]hgfcg';f/ o'/f]k / ;f]leot ;+3nfO{ nIo u/L k|;f/0f ;'? u/] . b'j} :6]zgnfO{ cd]l/sL hf;';L ;+:yf CIA n] ;g\ !(&! uf]Ko cfly{s ;xof]u lbPsf] lyof] . Radio Free Europe n] k"jL{ o'/f]ksf kf]ln;, r]s, :nf]efs, /f]dflgog, xFu]/Log / a'Nu]l/og efiffdf sfo{qmd k|;f/0f u¥of] . eg] /]l8of] lnj6L{n] Ps xKtfdf ug]{ s"n k|;f/0fsf] cfwfeGbf a9L ;do ;f]leot ;+3df af]nLg] !& j6f efiffdf sfo{qmd k|;f/0f uYof]{ . o:tf sfo{qmdx?df k"0f{tM sDo'lgi6 lj/f]wL ;fd|uL, n]v / ?;df k|ltjGlwt lstfax?af6 lnOPsf] ;Gb]zx? ahfOGYof] . REF n] !(%^df xFu]/Lsf hgtfdfem ToxfFsf sDo'lgi6 zf;s lj?4sf] ;Gb]z k|jfx u¥of] .

;f]leot ;+3 / jf;f{ u'6sf /fi6«x?n] b'j}n :6]zgx?nfO{ ljB'tLo ;fd|fHojfbL eGb} af/Daf/ l;Ugn hfd uy]{ . ;g\ !(*!df Do'lgs l:yt b'j} :6]zgsf] d'Vofnox?df ad k|xf/ ul/of] . To;nfO{ klZrdfx?n] ;f]leot hf;';L ;+:yf KGB n] u/fPsf] cf/f]k nufP .

;g\ !(** df ;f]leot /fi6«klt ldvfOn uf]jf{rf]en] Signal Jam x6fPkl5 b'j} :6]zgn] ljgfcj/f]w sDo'lgi6 zf;g lj/f]wL ;fd|uL k|;f/0f u/] . lzto'4sf] cGTo tyf ;f]leot ;+3 / k"jL{ o'/f]kdf sDo'lgi6 zf;g x6fpg tL ;fd|uLsf] of]ubfg /x]sf] dflgG5 .

;g\ !(() df lzto'4sf] ;dfKtLkl5 b'j} :6]zgn] Pl;ofnL /fi6«df ;d]t cfˆgf] zfvf vf]n] .

BBC n] a]nfotsf] Foreign and Colonial Office sf] /sdaf6 rNg] ePklg VOA sf] t'ngfdf ;Gt'lnt / kl/kSj ;fdu|L k|;f/0f ub{Yof] . oBkL BBC n] s'g efiffdf / slt ;do sfo{qmd k|;f/0f ug]{ eGg] lg0f{o eg] Colonial Office n] g} ub{Yof] .

;fDojfbL kIflj?4sf] k|rf/df BBC sf] e"ldsf klg sd /x]g . o;n] ;g\ !($* b]lv !($(;Dd jln{gsf] kvf{n 78fOFbf k"/} afx\o ;]jfnfO{ k"jL{ o'/f]klt/ nlIft u¥of] . o;n] cd]l/sL k|;f/s ;+:yf;Fu ldn]/ ?;L sfo{qmd k|;f/ u¥of] .

lzto'4sfndf o'/f]k]nL pklgj]zaf6 d'Qm ePsf b]zx?df /x]sf] klZrdf lj/f]wL efjgfnfO{ ;f]leot ;+3n] k|of]u u¥of] eg] sRrfkbf{y cfk"lt{ tyf ljsf; sfo{af6 klZrdf b]zx?n] cfˆgf] k|efj a9fP . b'j} u'6n] To;sf nflu /]l8of] kqsfl/tfsf] Jofks k|of]u u/] .

ljsf;f]Gd'v b]zx?sf /]l8of] :6]zgdf Ps csf{ kIf af6 ;xof]u ug{ / k|efjdf kfg{df xf]8jfhL rNof] .

klZrdfx?n] c/a ljZjnfO{ c?eGbf a9L rf;f\] lbP BBC Empire Service n] klxnf]k6s ;g\ !(#* c/aL efiffsf] /]l8of] :6]zg :yfkgf u/]sf] lyof] . cd]l/sL k|;f/sx?n] Voice of Esirial dfkm{t\ k|f]kfuf08f km}nfP . a]nfotn] ;fOk|;sf] Sharq– Al Adna af6 Voice of
Britain k|;f/0f u¥of] . c/aL d'nsx?n] klg sfo/f]af6 Plan – Arebism sf] cjwf/0f cufl8 NofP . o;cGtu{t /]l8of] cd]l/sf / Oh/fonlj/f]wL /]l8of] k|;f/0f eof] . Kofn]:6fOg d'lQm ;+u7gn] klg cfˆgf] cfGbf]ng hf/L /fVg d'lQm /]l8of] vf]Nof] . rLgdf sDo'lgi6x? ;Qfdf cfPkl5 cd]l/sfsf] k|efj cGo Pl;ofnL /fi6«x?df kg{ glbg ;lqmo eP .

leotgfd o'4df /]l8of]sf] k|of]u Jofks ?kdf ul/of] . To;a]nf sd prfOdf p8\g] ljdfgaf6 /]l8of] k|;f/0f ul/of] . blIf0fL leotgfddf /]l8of]dfkm{t\ Jofks ?kdf k|f]kfuf08f km}nfO{ pQ/L leotgfddf cfqmd0f ul/of]. OG8f]g]lzofdf ;'sfgf]{ lj?4sf] cfGbf]ng ug{ klg /]l8of]s} k|of]u eof] . ptf rLgn] klg hflDeof / tfGhflgofdf cd]l/sflj/f]wL k|;f/0f ug{ ;xof]u u¥of] .

k|efj

lzto'4 sfndf b'j} u'6af6 ljsf;f]Gd'v b]zdf k|efj km}nfpg ljsf;f[]Gd'v b]zdf /]l8of] lj:tf/ ug{ ;3fP. o;n] ubf{ /]l8of]sf] lj:tf/sf t eof] g} zf;ssf] lgoGq0f klg sfod /x\of]. /]l8of] lj:tf/dfkm{t cfcfKMgf] k|efj a9fpg b'a}n] vf]h] klg ;kmntf eg] k'hLjfbLn] g} kfPsf] b]lvG5 . cd]l/sfsf] k|efj hxfF| hxfF| k¥of] ToxfF+ ToxfF+sf] /fli6«o /]l8of] k|;f/0fsf] ljsf; ePsf] b]lvG5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu cd]l/sL /]l8of] ;xof]u /]l8of] g]kfn;Dd klg cfO k'Uof].

g]kfndf /]l8of] /fhgLltsf] k|efj

G]fkfndf /]l8of leqg'df klg /]l8of] kqsfl/tfnfO{ zlSts} nflu ul/Ps]f k|of]u sf/s /x\of]. g]kfnLx¿nfO{ /]l8of] ;'gfpg] sfo{ a]nfotn] cfKMgf] cf}klgj]lzs :jfy{ /Iffsf nflu ef/tdf ;'? u/]sf] /]l8of]n] u¥of] eGg ;lsG5 .

;g\ !(#) sf] bzsdf cn Ol08of /]l8of]sf] :yfkgf ePkl5 g]kfndf /]l8of] ;]6 k|z:t a9]sf] lyof]. To;a]nf hd{gLn] ?;nfO{ lhTg nfu]sf] To;kl5 a]nfotdfly hfOnfUg] / To;sf] k|efj g]kfndf /f0ff zf;gdf ;d]t kg]{ xNnf rNg yfn]kl5 h'4 zD;]/n] /]l8of] ;]6 vf];]sf lyP.

/fhgLlts kl/jt{gsf nflu /]l8of]sf] k|of]u ug]{ 7'n} cEof; g]kfndf eof]. ljkL sf]O/fnfn] qmflGt km}nfpg] dxTjk"0f{ ;fwgsf] ¿kdf k|of]u u/]. 7Ls To;} u/L ef/tLo :jtGqtf ;]gfgL ;'ef;rG\› a;n] klg /]l8of] k|of]u To;} u/L u/]sf lyP. /]l8of]sf] oxL rl/qsf sf/0f ;g\ !(() sf] bzsdf :jtGq /]l8of] gcfP;Dd /]l8of] g]kfnL hgtfsf] kx'raf6 6f9} /x\of].

lzto'4kl5sf] l:ylt

36gf

lzto'4kl5 ;f]leot ;+3sf] e"ldsf sdhf]/ eof] / ljZj Ps w'\|jLo aGof]. To;kl5 cd]l/sfn] ljleGg ;dodf / ljleGg b]zdf u/]sf] z}lgs x:tIf]ksf a]nf k|f]kfuf08f km}nfpg /]l8of]sf] k|of]u ul/of] . vf; u/L vf8L o'4 tyf ckmuflg:tfg, xfO6L, ;f]dflnof tyf sf]zf]ef] h:tf If]qdf ePsf z}lgs sf/afxLdf /]l8of]sf] k|of]u ul/of]. oBkL ;g\ !(()sf] bzskl5 6]lnlehgsf] k|efj a9g yfn]kl5 /]l8of]tkm{ sd Wofg lbPsf] kfOG5.

/]l8of] kqsfl/tfsf] o'4df k|of]usf] kl5Nnf] pbfx/0f ckmuflg:tfg lyof]. cd]l/sL / a]nfotL z}lgsx?n] o'4sf nflu /]l8of] ;Gb]zsf] Jofks k|of]u u/]. /]l8of] tyf 6]lnlehgsf] k|;f/0f ljleGg lkm|Sj]G;Ldf ug{ ;Sg] Ifdtfo'St / ;fdfGoeGbf kfF+r xhf/ lkm6 dfly p8g;Sg] ljdfg commando solo sf] k|of]u ul/of]. To;af6 k|;fl/t ;fdu|L ;'gfpg cd]l/sL ;]gf / USAID n] Aof6|L;lxtsf /]l8of];d]t afF8]sf lyP.

lgisif{

ljZj /fhgLltsf nflu /]l8of] kqsfl/tfsf] k|of]un] cNkljsl;t d'n'sx?;Dd /]l8of]sf] ljsf; / lj:tf/ b'j}df of]ubfg k'/\ofof] . csf]{tkm{ zlStzfnL b]znfO{ t];|f]ljZjdf k|efj hdfpg] axfgf lbof] eg] t];|f] ljZjsf zf;sx¿nfO{ /]l8of]nfO{ :jtGq 5f]8g gx'g] 1fg klg lbof]. DofSj]n]] eg]sf 5g\, “/fhgLlts :jfy{s} sf/0f /]l8of] / 6]lnlehg 5fkf hlt :jtGq cfh;Dd 5}gg\”.

;Gbe{ ;fdu|Lx¿

jGt k|To';, k/fh'nL z]v/, x'dfufFO{ b]j/fh, clwsf/L s[i0f @)^!, /]l8of] g]kfnsf] ;fdflhs Oltxf;, dfl6{g rf}tf/L sf7df8f}+ .

Thussu, Daya Kishan, 2000, International Communication, continuity and change, Arnold Publication, London

Herbert John, 2000, Practicing Global Journalism, Focal press, New Delhi

MC Quail Denis, 2005 MC Quail's Mass Communication Theory, Vistar Publication, New Delhi

Thussu, Daya Kishan, 200 7 , War and The Media

;/sf/L k|;f/0f dfWodsf] ?kdf /]l8of] g]kfn

k[i7e"ld –

ljB'lto t/+udfkm{t dfgljo cfjfh jf WogLjf6 ;dfrf/ ,;Gb]z tyf hfgsf/L k|jfx ug]{ dfWodnfO{ /]l8of] elgG5 . 5fkf dfWodsf] ljsf; / lj:tf/ o'/f]ke/ eO/xsf] j]nf j}sNkLs ;+rf/dfWodsf] ?kdf /]l8of]sf] cfljZsf/ ePsf] lyof] . /]l8of]sf] cfljZsf/ kl5 o;sf] lj:tf/ ljZje/ lgs} b'||t ultdf ePsf] kfOG5 . /]l8of]sf] Oltxf;sf] s'/f ubf{ O6fnLsf u'UnLof] dfsf]{gL -Guglimeo Marconi_ n] ljB'lto r'Djssf] t/ªjf6 ;g !*(%df ljZjd} klxnf] k6s ljgf tf/ /]l8of] ;+s]t ;+k|];0f ug{ ;kmn ePsf lyP . ;g\ !()!df /]l8of] t/ªsf] kl/If0f ;kmn ePkl5 ljlwjt ?kdf /]l8of]sf] z'?cft ePsf] lyof] . pgn] ;g\ !()&df cfGw| dxf;fu/ kfl/ ljgftf/ kl/If0fsf] ?kdf klxnf] k6s /]l8of] k|zf/0fsf] kl/If0f u/]sf lyP .

dfsf]{gLn] cfljZsf/ u/]sf] /]l8of] k|ljlwdf b|'t ljsf; eO cf}krfl/s ?kdf ;g !(@)df cd]l/sfsf] k]G;]Neflgofdf s]8Ls]P-KDKA_ tyf !(@@df j]nfotsf] /fhwfgL n08gdf lj|l6; j|f]8sf:6Lª skf]{/];g -jLjL;L_ jf6 /]l8of] k|zf/0f ;]jf k|f/De ePsf] lyof] .

ljs;Lt b]zx?n] /]l8of]nfO{ zq'sf lj?4 unt ;"rgf ;+k|];0f ug{ , k|rf/jfhL ug{ cyjf k|f]kf]uf08f km}Nofpg ;g !(!$ b]lv k|f/De ePsf] ljZjo'4df Jofks b'?kof]u u/]sf lyP . /]l8of] k|zf/0fsf] Oltxf;nfO{ x]bf{ blIf0f Pl;ofnL b]z ef/tdf c+u|]hsf] pklgj];sf] k|efjsf] sf/0f l56f] u/L /]l8of] k|zf/0f ePsf] kfOG5 . ;g\ !(@$ ef/tsf zf}lvg /]l8of] Snjsf] :yfkgf;+u} /]l8of] k|zf/0f cf/De ePsf] kfOG5 . ef/tdf Ol08og j|f]8sf:6Lª skf]{/];gsf] :yfkgfjf6 gLlh :jfldTjdf k|zf/0f ePsf] /]l8of]nfO{ ;g !(#^ b]lv ;/sf/L :jfdLTjdf NofO cn Ol08of /]l8of] gfdfs/0f ul/Psf] lyof] . cn Ol08of /]l8of]sf] k|z/0f;+u} g]kfnLx?n] klg /]l8of] k|zf/0f >jg ug]{ ub{y] .

;g\ !(## df lk|mSj]G;L df]8'n];g -FM_ k|0ffnLsf] ljsf; kl5 /]l8of] k|zf/0f If]q cem km/flsnf] ePsf] kfOG5 . O8jLg cfd{:6«f]ªn] k|ltkfbg u/]sf] PkmPkm k|ljlw ;g\ !($) b]lv k"0f{ ?kdf pkof]udf NofOPsf] kfOG5 .

;g\ !(%) sf] bzs ;Dddf ljZjsf clwsf+; ljsf;f]Gd'v b]z / blIf0f Pl;ofnL /fi6«df klg /]l8of] :yfkgf ePsf] lyof] . blIf0f Pl;ofnL /fi6«df /]l8of] k|zf/0f lgodLt ePkl5 To;sf k|efj g]kfndf klg kof]{ . h;n] ubf{ g]kfndf klg gLlh If]qjf6 /]l8of]sf] k|zf/0f ug{ yfn]sf] kfOG5 .

/]l8of] g]kfnsf] hGd –

g]kfndf /]l8of]sf] :yfkgf k|hftGq :yfkgfy{ ePsf] qmflGt;+u} ePsf] kfOG5 . g]kfnsf] klxnf] lgoldt /]l8of] k|zf/0fsf] ?kdf …g]kfn /]l8of] Ú @))& ;fn r}t @) ut] :yfkgf ePsf] kfOG5 . kl5 o;sf] gfd /]l8of] g]kfn /flvPsf] xf] . o; cl3 g]kfndf nf]stGq :yfkgfsf nflu ePsf] qmflGts} qmddf tf/0fL k|;fb sf]O/fnf nufotsf] ;d'xn] lj/f6gu/ l:yt h'6dLnjf6 …qmflGtsf/L /]l8of] g]kfnsf] :yfkgf u/]sf lyP . t/ g]kfndf /]l8of]sf] klxnf] k|zf/0f eg] ef]hk'/jf6 @))& ;fn d+l;/ @( ut]jf6 ePsf] xf] egL gf/bdl0f y'n'ªsf] ;:d/0fdf pNn]v ePsf] kfOG5 . t/ ef]hk'/df d+l;/ @$ ut] b]lv g}+ /]l8of] k|;f/0f ePsf] lyof] . . k''''; !) ut] ef]hk'/ d'QmL ;]gf/ lj/f6gu/ sf+u|]; ldn]/ lj/f6gu/ sAhf u/]kl5 tf/0fL k|;fb sf]O/fnfn] To; o'4nfO{ k|;f/0f u/fPsf lyP egL b|]0f k|;fb >]07n] eg]sf 5g . ef]hk'/sf] ToxL qmlGtsf/L /]l8of] lj/f6gu/ NofPkl5 k|hftflGqs /]l8of] ePsf] lyof] . ToxL qmflGtsf/L /]l8of]nfO{ k|ltsf/ ug{ tTsflng k|wfgdGqL kBd ;D;]/ /f0ffn] ;b/ 6'8Lv]n ghLs df]xg zD;]/ hj/fn] ljh'nL c8\8fjf6 /]l8of] k|;f/0f u/]sf] kfOG5 . sf7df8f}+sf] l;+xb/jf/ l:yt @ ;o %) jf6sf] ;6{j]e 6«fG;ld6/jf6 b}lgs ;f8] rf/ 306fsf] b/n] lgoldt k|zf/0f z'? u/]sf] g]kfn /]l8of]n] clxn];Dd cfOk'Ubf …/]l8of] g]kfnÚ sf] ?kdf cfkm\gf] bfloTj lgjf{x ub}{ cfPsf] 5 .@)!$ ;fndf jg]sf] /]l8of] P]gn] /]l8of] ;]6 /fVg kfpg] / gkfpg] ljifodf ;dfj]; u/L /]l8of]sf] kx'Frdf ;j{;fw/0fnfO{ jl~rt u/]sf] kfOG5 .

/]l8of] g]kfnn] cfkm\gf] k|zf/0f cjlwnfO{ j9fP/ @)!& ;fndf kfFr 306f , @)@% ;fndf !@ 306f , @)$! ;fndf !# 306fjf6 @)^$ ;fndf cfP/ !* 306f k'of{OPsf] 5 . t/ zdf{sf] k':tsdf dx]zk|;fb clwsf/Ln] eg] @)@* ;fndf dfq /]l8of] g]kfnsf] b}lgs k|zf/0f jfx| 306f k'u]sf] pNn]v 5 . /]l8of] g]kfnn] cfkm\gf] k|zf/0f z6{j]e / ldl8od j]e lk|mSj]G;L dfkm{t g]kfnsf] sl/j *) k|ltzt e'efu ;Dd km}Nofpg ;kmn ePsf] 5 . o;n] cfkm\gf] k|zf/0fnfO{ /fhwfgLdf dfq s]Gb|Lt gu/L If]lqo k|zf/0f dfkm{t b]ze/ g}+ ;]jf km}NofPsf] 5 . /]l8of] g]kfnnfO{ ;do ;fk]If kl/jt{g ub}{ n]hfg @)@* ;fndf nfu" ePsf] /fli6«o ;+rf/ of]hgf jdf]hLd ;/sf/n] /]l8of]sf] k|;f/0fnfO{ j9fP/ b}lg !@ 306f k'of{Psf] xf] .

@)$% ;fndf nfu" ePsf] k|zf/0f cg';f/ gLlh If]qnfO{ klg /]l8of] ;~rfng ug]{ cg'dlt lbg] Joj:yfsf] z'?cft ePkl5 gLlh :t/jf6 PkmPd vf]Ng]sf] jf9L g}+ cfPsf] kfOG5 .

@)%@ ;fnb]lv ;~rfngdf cfPsf] Pkm Pd /]l8of]n] klg rf}w jif{sf] cjlw kf/ ul/;s]sf] 5 . o; cjlwdf Pkm Pd /]l8of]n] b]zsf k|d'v zx/x?df cfkm\gf] kx'Fr lj:tf/ ug{ ;kmn ePsf] 5 . clxn] g]kfnsf] d'Vo zx/ x?df ;/b/ $ j6fsf b/n] PkmPd /]l8of]x? ;~rfngdf 5g . ;"rgf tyf ;+rf/ dGqfnosf] kl5Nnf] tYofªs cg';f/ xfn ;Dd g]kfndf @ ;o rf/ j6f PkmPd /]l8of]x? btf{ eO;s]sf 5g . lo dWo] ^* j6fn] lgoldt ?kdf ;]jf ;~rfng ul//x]sf 5g . sf7df8f}+ pkTosfdf dfq @^ j6f Pkm Pd /]l8of] ;~rfngdf 5g . o;nfO{ /]l8of]sf] ljsf;sf] pNn]Vo k|ultsf] ?kdf lng ;lsG5 .

;ldltdf kl/jt{g –

tTsflng >L %sf] ;/sf/sf] k|;f/ ljefu cGt/ut /x]sf] /]l8of] g]kfnnfO{ @)$! ;fn ebf} ! ut] b]lv ;ldltsf] ?kdf kl/jt{g ul/of] . /]l8of] g]kfn h:tf] /fli6«o ljsf;df lg/Gt/ ;]jf k'¥ofpg] ;+:yfsf] sfo{ ;+rfng ug{ ljsf; ;ldlt P]g @)!# cGt/ut u7g u/]/ ;+rfng ug'{ cfkm}df Pp6f xf:of:kb lg0f{o xf] eGbf cTo'lQm gxf]nf . pQm P]gsf] k|:tfjgfdf …ljsf; of]hgf / ljsf; sfo{nfO{ lz3| / ;'rf? ?kn] sfof{Gjog ug{ plrt Joj:y fug{ cfjZos b]lvPsf]n]====== Ú eGg] pNn]v ePjf6 klg k|i6 x'G5 ls /]l8of] g]kfnsf] ;+rfng sfo{ s'g}+ Ifl0fs ljsf; lgdf{0f sfo{ ;DkGg ug'{ h:tf] xf]Og . /]l8of] g]kfnnfO{ j9L :jfjnDjL jgfO ;'wf/ ;'w[9Ls/0f ug]{ egL ;ldlt u7g ul/Psf] lyof] .

;/sf/L ljefu cGt/ut /x]sf] /]l8of] g]kfnnfO{ cem :jfjnDjL jgfpg] pb]Zon] o;nfO ljefujf6 cnu ul/P klg ;/sf/L x:tIf]k eg] lg/Gt/ 5 . cNksflng ljsf; of]hgfnfO{ dWo]gh/ /fvL :yfkgf ul/Psf] cfof]hgf ;+rfng ug{ u7g ul/g] ljsf; ;ldlt cGt/ut /]l8of] h:tf] ;+j]bglzn dfWodnfO{ /fv]/ ;/sf/n] ckl/kSj lg0f{o u/]sf] kfOG5 . ljsf; ;ldlt cfb]z @)!# jdf]hLd ul7t /]l8of] k|;f/ ;]jf ljsf; ;ldlt cGt/ut g}+ /]l8of] g]kfn ;+rfnLt 5 .

o;}jif{ b]lv /]l8of]df Joj:yLt 9+un] lj1fkgsf] b//]6 tf]s]/ lj1fkg k|zf/0f x'g yfn]sf] kfOG5 . ;ldltdf kl/0ft ePb]lv g}+ /]l8of] k|+;f/ ;]jf ljsf; ;ldltsf] ;+rfns ;ldltsf] cWoIfdf ;"rgf tyf ;+rf/ dGqfnosf ;lrj /xg] Joj:yf 5 . ;ldltsf] ;b:o ;lrj /]l8of] g]kfnsf sfo{sf/L lgb]{zs /xG5g eg] ;+rfns ;ldltsf] ;b:ox?df /]l8of] g]kfnsf] sd{rf/L ;+3jf6 / /fhgLlts lg0f{o4f/f Pshgf ;+rf/sf] If]qdf sfd ug]{ JolQmsf] ?kdf dgf]lgt JoQmL /xg] ub{5g .

k|fljlws ljsf;qmd –

:yfkgfsfndf @ ;o %) jf6sf] z6{j]e 6«fG;ld6/jf6 k|f/De ePsf] /]l8of] g]kfnn] lgoldt k|+zf/0f @)!) ;fndf cfP/ cfkm\gf] IfdtfnfO{ lj:tf/ ug]{qmddf ^) jf6sf] 6«flG;ld6/jf6 ldl8od j]e k|;f/0f z'? u/]sf] kfOG5 . t/ /]l8of] g]kfnsf sfo{sf/L lgb]{zs ePsf ef]Uo k|;fb zfxsf cg';f/ !;o ^) jf6sf] ldl8od j]e 6«G;ld6/ :yfkgf ul/Psf] kfOPsf] 5 . hfjnfv]nsf] ;b/ lrl8ofvfgdf @)!# ;nfdf kfFr lsnf] jf6sf] csf]{ ;6{j]e 6«fG;ld6/sf] :yfkgfjf6 /]l8of]n] cfkm\gf] ;]jf lj:tf/ ug{ ;kmn eof] . @)!( ;fndf cfP/ ci6«lnof ;/sf/sf] ;xof]udf hfjnfv]ns} 6«fG;ldl6ª :6];gdf kfFr lsnf]jf6 Ifdtfsf] csf]{ 6«fG;ld6/ h8fg eof] . o;/L kfFr lsnf]jf6sf @ pks/0fjf6 /]l8of]n] b]zdf z6{j]e k|0ffnLsf] dfWod4f/f k|zf/0f cem lj:tf/ uof]{ . /]l8of]sf] k|zf/0f Ifdtfsf] / u'0f:t/sf] cem ljsf; ug{ j]nfot ;/sf/sf] ;xof]udf v'dn6f/df Ps ;o lsnf]jf6sf] ;6{j]e / !) lsnf]jf6sf] ldl8od j]e 6«flG;ld6/ ;lxtsf] 6«fG;ldl6ª :6];g :yfkgf eof] . j]nfot ;/sf/n] o;sf ;fy} l;+xb/jf/df g}+ 5 j6f :6'l8of] ePsf] ejg @)@% ;fndf lgdf{0f ul/lbof] h'g ejg clxn]klg ;+rfngdf 5 . hfkfg ;/sf/sf] ;xof]udf /]l8of]n] @)#% / @)#( ;fndf @ j6f Ps ÷Ps ;o lsnf]jf6sf] 6«fG;ld6/x? :yfkgf u/]sf] lyof] . /]l8of] g]kfnn] cfkm\gf] ;]jfnfO{ b]zsf ;j} >f]tfdfem k'of{pg] pb]Zon] kfFr j6} ljsf; If]qdf ;o lsnf]jf6sf] ldl8od j]e 6«fG;ld6/ /fv]sf] 5 . h;df wgs'6f , sf7df8f}+ ,kf]v/f / ;'v]{t 5g . 8f]6Lsf] bLkfon / dxf]Q/Lsf] jlb{jf;df eg] !)÷!) lsnf]jf6sf] ldl8od j]e 6«fG;ld6/ /flvPsf] 5 . o;sf ;fy} /]l8of] g]kfnn] ;'g;/Lsf] w/fg / wg'iffsf] 9Ns]j/df klg :6];g v8f u/]sf] 5 . /]l8of] g]kfndf hl8t z6{j]e k|;f/0fsf ;j} lsl;dsf pks/0f ljut $) jif{ eGbf k'/fgf 5g .

o;sf cltl/Qm /]l8of] g]kfnn] s}nfnLsf] j'9Ltf]nfdf !)# d]ufxh{ , gjnk/f;Lsf] bfpGg]df !)) d]ufxh{ , bfªdf (* d]ufxh{df / h'Dnfdf !)) d]ufxh{df Pkm Pkm :6];gdfkm{t /]l8of]sf] k|;f/0f k|jfx eO/x]sf] 5 . s~rgk'/sf] emnf/Ldf :yfkgf ul/Psf] Ps lsnf]jf6sf] 6«fG;ld6/jf6 /]l8of] g]kfnsf] s]Gb|Lo Pj+ If]lqo k|zf/0f ePklg dfcf]jfbLn] ;j} pks/0f n'6]kl5 k|;f/0f g}+ jGb x'g uPsf] lyof] . sfof{nodf h8fg ePsf ;j} oGq pks/0fx? lj; jif{ eGbf klg k'/fgf 5g

If]qLo k|zf/0fsf] lj:tf/ / ljljw efiffdf ;dfrf/ –

/]l8of] g]kfnsf] sf7df8f} l:yt l;+xb/jf/ :6'l8of]jf6 k|zf/Lt ;fdfu|LnfO{ b]zJofkL k'of{pg l/n] :6];gsf] ?kdf dfq k|of]udf cfPsf sl/j cfwf bh{g 6«fG;ld6/x?nfO{ ;/sf/n] @)%) ;fn b]lv 5'6} ;]jf k|zf/0f u/]sf] 5 . /fli6«o ;+rf/ gLlt @)$( sf] clwgdf /x]/ ;/sf/n] @)%) r}t @) ut] b]lv If]qLo k|zf/0f k|f/De uof]{ . sf7df8}+fdf ;Lldt /x]sf] If]qLo k|;f/0fnfO{ lj:tf/ ub}{ /]l8of]n] @)%! c;f/ Ps ut] b]lv k'jf{~rn If]q wgs'6f jf6 klg If]qLo efiffx?df If]lqo k|;f/0f x'g yfn]sf] kfOG5 .

o:tf If]qLo k|zf/0f s]Gb|x?n] :yfkgf sfndfdf ;'v]{t k|;f/0f s]Gb|n] vfg]kfgL / :jf:Yo ;DjlGw tyf kf]v/f / wg'6fsf] If]lqo k|;f/0f s]Gb|n] eg] s[ifL ;DjlGw sfo{qmd k|;f/0f ub{Yof] .

g]kfnsf] jx'eflifs / jx'hflto ljif]ztfnfO{ ;+jf]wg ub}{ k|hftGq k'g:yf{yfkgf ePkl5sf] ;/sf/n] /]l8of] g]kfnjf6 ljleGg /fli6«o efifdf ;dfrf/x? k|;f/0fsf] k|f/De uof]{ . clxn] /]l8of] g]kfnjf6 /fi6« efiff g]kfnL jfx]s lxGbL , ;+:s[t / !& j6f /fli6«o efiffdf ;dfrf/ k|;f/0f x'g] ub{5 . jx'eflifs ;dfrf/ k|;f/0fsf] ?kdf /]l8of] g]kfnsf] of]ubfg dxTjk"0f{ dflgG5 . k~rfotL Joj:yfsf] cGtLd ;dodf ;d]t /]l8of] g]kfnjf6 s]jn g]kfnL / c+u|]hL efifdf dfq ;dfrf/ k|;f/0f x'[g] ub{Yof] . o; cl3 @)!% ;fndf k|yd hglgjf{rLt ;/sf/sf] ;dodf /]l8of] g]kfnn] g]kfnL / c+u|]hL jfx]s g]jf/L , lxGbL / d}lynL efiffdf ;dfrf/ k|;f/0f ug{ z'? u/]sf] lyof] . t/ k+rfotL zf;gsfndf lt tLg j6} efiffsf] ;dfrf/ k|;f/0fnfO{ jGb ul/Psf] lyof] .

@)$^ ;fnsf] /fhgLlts kl/jt{g kl5sf] ;/sf/n] @)$( ;fn k'; !$ ut]b]lv g]kfnL / c+u|]hLsf cltl/Qm d}lynL, lxGbL / g]jf/L efifdf /]l8of] g]kfnjf6 ;dfrf/ k|;f/0f u/L jx'eflifs ;dfrf/ k|;f/0fsf] z'?cft u¥of] . To;}u/L @)%! ;fn ebf} ! ut]jf6 Pdfn]sf] ;/sf/n] ef]hk'/L , cjlw ,klZrdL yf? ,k"j]{nL yf? ,/fO jfGtjf ,tfdfª, lnDj' , du/ / u''?ª efiffdf ;dfrf/ k|;f/0f z'? u¥of] . Pdfn]s} ;/sf/n] ;f]xL jfif{sf] r}t @) ut]jf6 ;+:s[t efiffdf /]l8of]jf6 ;dfrf/ k|;f/0f z'? ubf{ tTsflng ;"rgf tyf ;+rf/ dGqL k|bLk g]kfnn] 7"n} lj/f]wsf] ;fdgf ug'{k/]sf] lyof] . o;}jLr,@)%# ;fpg ! ut]jf6 z]kf{ efiffdf / ebf} ! ut]jf6 pb"{ efiffn] /]l8of]df k|j]z kfP . To;kl5 8f]6]nL , vfd du/ / /fgf yf? h:tf efiffdf ;dfrf/ /]l8of]n] If]qLo k|;f/0f s]Gb| dfkm{t :yfg kfof] .

oL dWo] s]Gb|Lo k|;f/0f /fi6« efiff g]kfnLsf cltl/Qm c+u|]hL , ;+:s[t, lxGbL ,d}lynL, g]jf/L , z]kf{ / pb"{ efiffdf ;dfrf/ k|;f/0f x'G5g eg] dWodf~rn If]qLo k|;f/0f s]Gb| sf7df8f}+jf6 tfdfª / ef]hk'/L efiffdf ;dfrf/n] :yfg kfPsf 5g . k"j{~rn If]qLo k|;f/0f s]Gb| wgs'6fjf6 /fO jfGtjf ,lnDj' ,yf? Pj+ klZrdf~rn If]qLo k|;f/0f s]Gb| ;'v]{tjf6 yf? ,cjlw ,8f]6]n ,vfd du/ / /fgf yf? efiffdf ;dfrf/ k|;f/0f x'g] ub{5g . klZrdf~rn If]qLo k|;f/0f s]Gb| kf]v/fjf6 u'?ª / du/ efiffdf ;dfrf/ k|zf/0f ePsf 5g .

;f+;fb g/x/L cfrfo{sf] ;+of]hsTjdf ul7t ;'emfj ;ldltn] lbPsf] l;kmfl/;sf] cfwf/df ;/sf/n] @)%! ebf} Ps ut] b]lv du/ ,u'?ª ,ef]hk'/L , cjlw , yf? , /fOjfGtjf , lnDj' / tfdfª efiffdf ;dfrf/ k|;f/0f z'? u/]sf] xf] .

Pkm Pd ;+rfng–

/]l8of] g]kfnn] g}+ klxnf]k6s @)%@ ;fn sflt{s #) ut] b]lv sf7df8f}+ pkTosf / cf;fkf;sf] If]qsf >f]tfx?nfO{ ;]jf lbg] pb]Zon] Pkm Pd /]l8of] :yfkgf u/L lgoldt k|zf/0f klg ufof]{ . of] Pkm Pd Ps ;o d]ufxh{df ;'Gg ;lsG5 . /]l8of] g]kfnn] b]ze/df sl/j Ps bh{g Pkm Pdx? :yfkgf u/L st} s'g}+ ;+:yfnfO{ sfo{qmd k|;f/0f ug{ ef8fdf lbPsf] 5 eg] jfFfsL Pkm Pdn] /]l8of] g]kfns} ;dfrf/ k|jfx ul/lbPsf lyP .

cfly{s ef/ –

/]l8of] g]kfnn] ljB't dx;'n jfkt dfq jflif{s c9fO s/f]8 ?k}ofF vr{ u/]sf] 5 . k'/fgf] cyf{t ;6{j]e k|zf/0fsf] :6'l8of]sf] k|of]ujf6 j9L ljB't vkt ug]{ x'bf /]l8of]sf] cfly{s cj:yf sdhf]/ x'gdf ljB't dx;'nsf] ef/ g}+ k|d'v sf/s xf] .

;/sf/sf] k|;f/ ljefujf6 ;ldltdf kl/jlt{t /]l8of] g]kfnnfO{ ;/sf/n] cfj @)$!÷$@df hDdf jh]6sf] %# k|ltzt cfly{s cg'bfg k|bfg u/]sf] lyof] . t/ kl5Nnf] jif{ @)%# ;fndf cfP/ cg'bfg /sddf s6f}lt u/L ;/sf/n] @%=#! k|ltztdf emf/]sf] lyof] . @)%@ ;fndf /]l8of] g]kfnn] :yfkgf u/]sf] !)) d]ufxh{sf] Pkm=Pd= /]l8of]sf] ;do gLlh sDkgLx?nfO{ klg j]Rg yfn]kl5 k|zf/0fsf] If]qdf Psnf}6L lj1fkg k|fKt u/]sf] /]l8of] g]kfnn] cGo If]q;+u klg k|ltZkwf{ ug{ yfNof] . b]zJofkL ?kdf :yfkgf ePsf Pkm=Pd= /]l8of]n] ;d]t Joj;flos k|zf/0f z'? u/]kl5 /]l8of] g]kfnn] dfq Psnf}6L ?kdf kfpb} cfPsf] lj1fkg gLlh If]qsf /]l8of]n] klg nfg yfn] . h;n] ubf{ /]l8of] g]kfnn] lj1fkg jfkt kfpb} cfPsf] cfDbfgLsf] >f]t 36\g yfn]sf] kfOG5 .

t/ k'/fgf pks/0fsf sf/0f ljB't dxz'n jfkt /]l8of]n] jflif{s 5 s/f]8 ?k}of ljB't k|flws/0fnfO{ ltb}{ cfPsf] 5 .

sd{rf/Lsf] tnj, eQf , ;]jf , ;'ljwf / ljsf; tkm{sf] u/L /]l8of] g]kfnn] jflif{s !& s/f]8 ?k}ofF vr{ j]xf]b}{ cfPsf] 5 .

cfDbfgL M

/]l8of] g]kfnn] jif]{g] lj1fkg jfkt ;ft s/f]8 ?k}ofF cfDbfgL ub}{ cfPsf] 5 . ljutsf] t'nfgfdf /]l8of] g]kfnnfO{ lj1fkg sdL cfpg] u/]sf] 5 . /]l8of] g]kfnnfO{ ;/sf/n] jif]{gL sl/j rf/ s/f]8 ?k}ofF dfq cg'bfg lb+b} cfPsf] 5 . /]l8of]n] b'O jif{ cl3 b]lv ef};}kf6L l:yt cfkm}n] lgdf{0f u/]sf] !)# d]ufxfh{sf] Pkm Pd jLjL;L g]kfnL ;]jfnfO{ b}lgs ?kdf k|of]u ug{ lbP/ jflif{s %) nfv ?k}ofF cfDbfgL u/]sf] 5 . To:t} /]l8of]s} ;'v]{t l:yt /]l8of]sf] PkmPdn] ;d]t jflif{s Ps s/f]8 hlt k|bfg ub{5 .

cfj @)$!÷$@df /]l8of]sf] cfDbfgL ^# nfv lyof] h'g cfj @)%*÷%( df j9]/ !! s/f]8 %) nfv k'u]klg vr{sf] t'ngfdf cfDbfgL Hofb} sd 5 . ljut kfFr jif{sf] vr{df k|To]s jif{ ;/b/ sd{rf/L vr{df $%% c+; cf]u6]sf] 5 eg] ljB't dx;'n nufotsf] vr{n] $)% c+; cf]u6]sf] s'/f /]l8of] g]kfnsf n]vf clws[t /fwfs[i0f sfkm\n]n] hgfPsf 5g .

sfo{qmdx? –

/]l8of] g]kfnn] :yfkgfsfn b]lv g}+ ;dfrf/d'ns lzIffd'ns / dgf]/~hgfTds u/L tLg lsl;dsf sfo{qmddf k|zf/0f ub}{ cfPsf] kfOG5 . sfo{qmdx?sf] k|fyldstfsf] lx;fjn] @)$^ ;fndf ;dfrf/d'ns sfo{qmd !^=* k|ltzt , lzIffd'ns #*=* k|ltzt / dgf]/~hgfTds sfo{qmd $$=% k|ltzt k|zf/0f u/]sf] kfOG5 . t'ngfTds lx;fjn] x]g]{ xf] eg] k|hftGq k'g:yf{kgf eO;s]kl5 lzIffd'ns sfo{qmdsf] ;do 36fP/ @)%# ;fndf #*=& k|ltztjf6 !^=$df k'of{OPsf] 5 . t/ ;dfrf/d'ns sfo{qmdsf] ;do !^=* k|ltztjf6 j9fP/ @)=%) k|ltzt k'of{OPsf] 5 . dgf]/~hgfTds sfo{qmdsf] ;donfO{ klg $$=% k|ltztjf6 j9fP/ @)%# ;fndf ^#=!) k|ltzt k'of{Psf] kfOG5 .

/]l8of] g]kfnsf] k|;f/0f z'? ePb]lv g}+ ;+rfng ePsf] sfo{qmd g}+ wfld{s sfo{qmd xf] . sl/j cfwf 306fsf] ;f] sfo{qmddf z+v WjgL , lxGbLdf lzj cf/tL / elQm ;+lut k|;f/0f x'GYof] . kl5 @)@* ;fndf eg] wfld{s sfo{qmdnfO{ j9fP/ cwf 306f k'of{Oof] . h;sf] ;+rfnsdf k'?iff]Qd ;fksf]6fnfO{ lgo'Qm ul/of] .

o;}jLr , @)#( ;fnjf6 kf08j ;'g'jf/n] ;+rfng u/]sf OGb|]0fL , /f]wL3/ / rf}tf/L h:tf sfo{qmd nf]sk|Lo jg]sf 5g . /f]wL / rf}tf/L cem} klg lgoldt 5g .

@)$* ;fnjf6 k|;f/0f ePsf] ;dfrf/d"ns sfo{qmd 36gf / ljrf/ sfo{qmd w]/} nf]sk|Lo klg eof] . o;};dob]lv z'? ePsf] ;dfrf/d'ns sfo{qmd kl/j]; eg] dfcf]jfbLn] ;+rf/ dGqfno ;+xfn]kl5 @)^$ ;fn h]7 cf7 ut] b]lv jGb x'gk'Uof] .

clxn] /]l8of] g]kfnjf6 k|zf/0f x'g] sfo{qmddf ;j}eGbf j9L ;dfrf/ / ;dfrf/d"ns sfo{qmdn] $# k|ltzt ;do cf]u6]sf] 5 eg] dgf]/~hgfTds sfo{qmdn] #* k|ltzt / hfgsf/Ld'ns Pj+ lzIff ;DjlGw sfo{qmd @) k|ltzt dfq 5 .

hgzlQm M

/]l8of] g]kfn ;/sf/sf] lgoGq0fdf /x]sfn] o;sff] hgzlQm klg ljutdf pNn]vgLo lyP . /]l8of] g]kfndf clxn] 5 ;o Ps hgfsf] b/jGbL /x]sf] 5 . %$ hgf sd{rf/L ;/sf/L kIffn] ;DjlGwt dGqLsf] bjfjdf s/f/df ;]jf lnO/x]sf 5g ./]l8of] g]kfndf clxn] klg ^$ hgf kqsf/ l:6«Gh/ 5g . /]l8of] g]kfndf sl/j 5 ;osf] xf/fxf/Ldf b/jGbL ePklg ;ft ;o j9L sd{rf/L sfo{/t 5g . w]/}h;f]sf] sfd g}+ gePsf] / ;+:yfnfO{ cgfjZos ef/ ePsf] egL tkgfy z'Snfn] em+sf/sf] ;+o'Qmfªs @)^@–^#df pNn]v u/]sf 5g . @)^@ df /]l8of] g]kfnsf sfo{sf/L lgb]{zs /x]sf z'Snn] sl/j (! hgf sd{rf/Lsf] s/f/ cjlw yk gu/L x6fP . t/ of] lg0f{o klg /fhf 1fg]Gb|sf] df3 !( , @)^! kl5sf] ePsf] eGb} hgcfGbf]ngsf] jnjf6 :yflkt ;/sf/n] @)^# ;fndf lt ;j}sf] k'gjf{xnL ul/Psf] lyof] .

/]l8of] g]kfn ;~rfngsf] lgoGq0f –

/]l8of] g]kfnsf] ;+rfng , /]vb]v , kl/rfng / Joj:yfkgsf] lhDdf /]l8of] k|;f/ ;]jf ljsf; ;ldltnfO{ lbOPsf] 5 . o;sf] nflu ;ldltsf] Ps ;+rfns ;ldlt 5 , h;nfO{ ;ldltsf] ;j} lhDd]jf/L / clwsf/ k|bfg ul/Psf] 5 . o; ;ldltsf] cWoIf g}+ ;"rgf tyf ;+rf/ dGqfnosf ;lrj x'g] ub{5g . ;ldltsf] ;+rfns ;ldltsf] ;b:ox?df Pshgf /]l8of] g]kfnsf sd{rf/L dWo]jf6 rog ul/g] 5 . ;ldltdf Ps hgf eg] ;+rf/sf] If]qdf ljlzi6 of]ubfg lbg] JolQmx? dWo]jf6 Pshgf /xg] ub{5g . o;/L ;+rfns ;ldlt klg ;/sf/ kl/jt{g x'g] ljlQs} kl/jt{g x'gfn] of] ;+:yf :jfoQ / l:y/ Pj+ Jojl:yt x'g ;s]s]f 5}g .

o;/L , ljB'lto t/ªjf6 ;+rfng ulf/g] / Ps} k6s w]/} ;|f]t ;dIf k'Ug] ePsfn] /]l8of] k|zf/0f k|ljlw k|efjsf/L ;+rf/dfWodsf] ?kdf :yfkLt eO;s]sf] 5 . /]l8of] k|zf/0fsf] sl/j ;o jif{sf] cjlwdf o;n] cfd dflg;df ;"rgf , ;Gb]z tyf hfgsf/Lx? pknJw u/fP/ ;";"lrt , lzIfLt / hfu?s jgfpgdf e"ldsf v]n]sf] 5 . vf;u/L clzIfLt ;dfhdf ;'rgf ;Gb]z k|jfx ug{ / pgLx?sf] b}lgs hghLjgdf kl/jt{g Nofpg /]l8of]n] k|efjsf/L e'ldsf v]nf]sf] kfOG5 .

5fkf dfWodsf] kx'r ;fIf/ dflg; ;Dd x]g]]] / kqklqsf pgLx? ;dIf gk'Ug] jf k'Ug klg ;do nfUg] ePsfn] 5fkf dfWodsf] ljsNksf] ?kdf /]l8of] dfWodsf] nf]sk|Lotf j9g uPsf] xf] . /]l8of] k|zf/0fsf dfWodjf6 tTsfn ;Gb]z ;k|]if0f x'g] ePsf]n] o;sf] cfd dflg;df 5'6} k|efj k/]sf] 5 . 5fkf dfWodsf] t'ngfdf l56f] ;"rgf k|fKt x'g] ePsfn] tTsfnsf vj/ cfd dflg;n] yfxfkfpg] dfq xf]Og cGo dfWodsf] t'ngfdf ;:tf] klg ePsfn] ul/j hgtfsf] kx'rdf k'Ug ;kmn ePsf] 5 . /]l8of] ;]6 ePdf tTsfn} ;'rgf tyf ;Gb]z / hfgsf/L kfpg] ePsf]n] ;j}eGbf j9L dflg;sf] kx'r ePsf] ;+rf/ dfWodsf] ?kdf /]l8of] :yfkLt eO;s]sf] 5 .

:o6]nfO6 -e"pku|x_ k|ljlwsf] cfljZsf/ kl5 5f]6f] ;dodf 7'nf] If]qdf Ps} k6s ;+rf/ ug{ ;Sg] k|efjsf/L dfWodsf] ?kdf /]l8of]n] cfkm'n] :yfkLt u/]sf] 5 . /fli6«o k|;f/0f / :yfgLo k|;f/0fsf] ?kdf /]l8of] g]kfnn] ;dfh k|lt ;sf/fTds e"ldsf lgjf{x ug]{ k|oTg u/]sf] 5 . ;"rgf , ;Gb]z / dgf]~hg k|bfg ug]{ pb]Zo ;j} /]l8of]sf] eP klg /]l8of] g]kfnn] cfkm\gf] nIo k|fKt ug{ ;kmn ePsf] kfOG5 . ;+VofTds ?kdf /]l8of] :6];gx?sf] j[l4 ePklg u'0ffTds ?kdf eg] /]l8of] g]kfnn] k+|zf/0f ug]{ sfo{qmdx?sf] :t/ eg] j9g ;s]sf] 5}g .

jblnbf] k|ljlwnfO{ cfTd;fy ug]{ nIo cg'?k /]l8of] g]kfnn] cfkm\gf] ;Dk"0f{ k|;f/0fnfO{ @)^# k'; rf/ b]lv OG6/g]6 -internate_ dfkm{t cgnfOg /]l8of] k|;f/0f z'? u/]sf] lyof] . o;sfnflu /]l8of] g]fkfn ,jN8{ln+s sDo'lgs];g / hfkfg l:yt PgcfOl6eL g]6js{jLr ePsf] ;Demf}tf jdf]hLd /]l8of] g]kfnsf] ;Dk"0f{ k|;f/0f OG6/g]6 dfkm{t ;'Gg kfOG5 . t/ /]l8of] g]kfnn] @)%$ ;fnd} OG6/g]6 dfkm{t /]l8of]sf s]xL ;dfrf/ , dgf];~hgfTds / uLt ;uLtsf sfo{qmd dfq 8fpgnf]8 u/L k|;f/0f ug]{ ub{Yof] . /]l8of] g]kfnn] clxn] cfP/ b}lgs ljxfg kfFr jh] b]lv lg/Gt/ j]n'sf !! jh] ;Dd s'n !* 306f cfkm\gf] ;]jf k|;f/0f ub{5 .

;Gbe{ ;fdu|L

zdf{ b'uf{gfy ,k|zf/0f kqsfl/tf xft] lstfj ,g]kfn k|]; OlG:6Ro'6 @)%$

/fli6«o k|zf/0f P]g , @)$(

emªsf/, /]l8of] g]kfnsf] d'vkq , cªs # jif{ $( :j0f{ dxf]T;j cª\s ,jif{ %^ ;+o'Qmfª\s ,jif{ %$

sfsL{ ,O=/d]zh+u , sfo{sf/L lgb]{zs /]l8of] g]kfn

vqL , vu]Gb| , k|d'v , ;dfrf/ dxfzfvf , /]l8of] g]kfn

Radio: A tool of Development

Introduction:

Development motivation and awareness are essential in addition to information, education and communication to achieve the development goals, according to Uma Narula, Indian communication specialists. (Development Communication, Theory and Practice by Uma Narula, page 22, 2005).

Wilbur Schramm was the first to recognize that communication could play an important role in the national development of the third world countries. He believed that mass media could better the lives of people by supplying the information resources and exposing people for learning opportunities. (Learner and Schramm 1967). Schramm's conceptualization of the interaction between mass communication and development became the focus of many developing programs. (Development Communication, Theory and Practice by Uma Narula, 2005).

Nepal had also joined he bandwagon of starting development communication in the decade of 1970s. Senior journalist Kishor Nepal is considered as the first person to start development journalism in Nepal as he commenced rural journalism at that time. Gorkhapatra daily had stared a column called 'Hamra Gaunghar or Our villages' when Bharat Dutta Koirala was appointed editor of the Gorkhapatra daily in 1976. (Nepali Patrakaritako Vikaskram, Press Counicl Nepal, 2055 B.S.).

Use of media during the green revolution in India can also be taken as an effort to utilize the media as a toll to achieve development goals. However, these efforts didn't yield desired output because they were done with top-down approach. So, the concept of bottom-up approach, people's participation in the development process has come forward in the recent days.

The governments of the developing countries used radio and televisions to achieve their development goals. Nepali government also used radio for this purpose but failed yield desired goals. During the Panchayat regime, there was an only Radio Nepal to air news, views and entertainment and it used to air them in a limited time period. So, the radio's magnitude of influence was also limited.

Now, the number of radios has spread throughout the country and most of them have been serving the people's interest. The Local and community radios have been instrumental to disseminate information to meet the aspiration of local people. Altogether 204 radios stations have already obtained licenses from the government for operation throughout the country. Their collective role in development communication has great potential to lead the country into the development path. However, all the radio have failed to give priority to the development issues but community radios have made huge strides in the development field.

Why to use radio for development communication?

The following relative strengths of radio make this medium the most useful tool for promoting development.

· Many people can listen to it

· Cheap and easy

· Attractive and entertaining

· Quicker to give news

· Even the illiterate people can learn from radio

(Radio Karyakram, Badri Paudyal, NEFEJ, 2060 B.S.)

It is not that all the radio stations have given due attention to the development issues. The commercial radio stations have priority to attract more listeners so that they could make good earnings. But, community radios are playing leading role in this regard. Radio Nepal has also some development-oriented programs, which it is destined to make, as it is the station being run from the revenues paid by people.

The following features of the community radio make this type of radio more important for development communication.

· It's concept is participatory

· Collective ownership

· Active listeners

· Accountable to society

· Natural style

· Goal of collective welfare

(Radio Wachan by Raghu Mainali, Community Radio Assistance Center, NEFEJ, 2059 B.S.)

There are currentl 68 community radio stations registered with the government authority in the country and they have served the differently made materials to the listeners. "The role of community media person should be not to remain mum over controversial issues but to encourage people to discuss and debate on the issue. …..He or she must be a part of social mainstream and recognize the society well where he or she lives. … Media persons associated with community radio talks with the community themselves with the money raised from them…. So, the community radio is called the medium that is run by community for themselves." (Radio Wachan by Raghu Mainali, Community Radio Assistance Center, NEFEJ, 2059 B.S.)

This statement speaks volumes how the community radio can be used for development activities.

International Experiences:

After the invention of radio in 1895 by Marconi, the radio was mainly used for propaganda purposes. The radio played key role in propaganda during the World War I and World War II. But, people thought about its positive uses and did so right after the invention of radio. People had interest in its potential education role, and by the late 1920s and 1930s. A number of educational institutions in Europe, America and elsewhere were making extensive use of radio for education purposes.

After the concept of development journalism was introduced in 1960s, the radio was used for development purposes extensively. In the area of educating people, the radio's role was related mainly to improve educational quality and relevance, lower educational costs and to improve access to education, particularly in rural areas. Radio performed well in all these three areas, according to many studies. A number of comprehensive surveys ( Chu and Schramm, 1967; Jamison, Suppes, and Wells, 1974; Scgrann, 1977) concluded that the students' performances in the class remained same either they were taught by an instructor or radio, television and audio-tape instructors. This shows the impressive educating role of the radio. The finding of equal effectiveness of both direct instructor and radio instructor opens the possibility of reducing cost, which may be particularly important if there is a substantial unmet social demand for education. As the radio is effective, its use could be important in case the teacher is untrained in schools. During 1960s, Nicaragua's radio mathematics projects also helped the early elementary class students to learn more. The evaluation results found strong achievement gains from radio instruction over traditional instruction. As providing education for a child is becoming increasingly costly, the use of radio could be instrumental for distant learning. Similarly, the people of rural areas can have improved access to education through radio technology.

The use of radio for direct instrument in one or more subjects showed substantial promise for major improvement in the quality of education. The Nicaraguan Radio Mathematics Project provided a striking example of how much a carefully designed radio curriculum can have impact on students. The use of radio for distant learning system proved highly successful in Kenya and Dominican Republic

The use of radio for development communication has also given fruitful achievement in many countries—The Kenya Health Broadcasts (UNICEF, 1975), the nutrition radio campaigns (Manoff, 1975), Guatemalan agriculture information programs (AED, 1976) and Tanzania radio campaigns (Hall and Dodds, 1977) are successful example of how radio can be an effective tool for development communication. All these programes were successful to achieve the basics goals including to motivate audiences, to inform them, to teach them work skills and to change specific items of behavior. The nutrition radio campaigns had contributed to change behavior related to food habits. The mobilization of about two million for health and food-growing campaigns through Tanzania Radio Campaign was instrumental to bring awareness among the large mass of people in 1973 and 1975. (Radio for Education and Development, Case Studies, by Dean T. Jamison and Emile G. Mcannany, 1977)

In India, the Rural Radio Forums, a UNESCO project, helped Indians to have more agriculture knowledge in 1965. The project is aimed at forming listeners clubs at every village of the programs being aired on radio. The West Bengal report stated, "It is interesting to note that 100 per cent of the member's have said that the Radio Farm Forum Organization and Broadcast are the best means of communicating and enhancing knowledge among villagers on agricultural matters." When asked to specify how they would react if the forum organization was withdrawn, 97 per cent of those questioned said they would be ' very sorry' or feel its wants."

The survey of Utter Pradesh conduced by the Planning Research and Action Institute, Lucknow, concluded: Our total impression gathered from the field has been that the Radio Rural Forum Progamme has a considerable degree of potential in motivating village fold with respect to knowledge, attitude and actual application in practice, but the program in the filed still has to develop an organizational structure in which a number of physical factors must be successfully resolved. (Radio Broadcasting Services rural development, UNESCO, 1965)

The UNESO sponsored project ' Radio Forums for Rural development in Ghana during the same period also showed good results (An African experiment in radio forum for rural development, UNESCO 1968)

In Karnataka of India, Namma Dhwani community radio reaches village listeners using a local cable network. Mangala Gowri, the group's studio manager, told of how they make audio programs and air them using cassette players within women's groups meetings (a system they call narrowcasting), as well as to the weekly local market. Seema Nair, who supports Namma Dhwani's efforts explained: "Narrowcasting is effective, especially for the women's groups, but it is limited in terms of reaching the whole community, So, we came up with the idea of cable radio."
. (Andy Phipps for One World Radio, and international network of radio organizations, February3, 2004)

The community audio towers in the Philippines have changed the landscape of relations between small communities and local governments. In Tacunan, electricity, potable water and a new road were a result of the community being empowered through the community audio tower to communicate its demands to the authorities. (Communication for Social Change, an INGO working in the communication field --www.cfsc.org)

The government of Zambia set up literacy classes for women who were unable to read and write as the women complained through the radio that they were unable to read and write and wanted government to help them by opening literacy classes. Government through the district administration responded by setting up literacy classes for women in Ndeka Township in Mazabuka. There are now 32 women attending literacy classes in the area (An example of impact of community radio in Zambia presented by the International Institute for Communication and Development, an INGO, working in different countries including Latin American and Africa

Situation of Nepal

Radio Nepal also started educational programs right after its establishment on Chaitra 2007 B.S. The Radio Nepal started a women focused educational program ' Nari' on Baishakh 23, 2008 but that lasted for only seven months. Radio Nepal started to air agricultural program four times in a week as per the recommendation made by Radio Nepal Program Advisory Committee in 2025 B.S. The Agriculture Information and Communication Center had run the program on Mangsir 25, 2023.

The government implemented the 'Communication Plan-2028' which embodied the spirit of ' Communication for Development for the first time" By considering that "People can know about modern ideas on the development only through various communication media. With this, the methods of improving farming, political ideas and perceptions can be spread among people with a little expenditure" (Harold Cash, Speeding March, Far Eastern Economic Review, 19 Sept 1970), the government had prepared the communication plan.

The first communication plan envisions the developmental role of media as follows:-

1. The communication should be national and extensive as soon as possible. More and more people should be informed about various activities through the media

2. People's mind should be directed to the path of development with the mixture of old and new ideas by considering the fact that most of the people live in the rural areas

3. Language to be used by the media should be simple and precise etc

(Communication Plan-2028, Prakashanko Digdarsan, Press Council Nepal, 2060)

Following the government brought the new communication plan, the coverage of development journalism expanded. The plan also encouraged the beginning of the development journalism. Then, in 1976, Gorkhapatra ran a column ' Hamro Gaunghar' with coverage of issues of rural Nepal. The radio's importance was felt in the decades of 1970s in the areas of health, education and agriculture although the radio sets were very expensive at that time. 'Radio has been the main means for disseminating information regarding health related activities, education, suggestions to the people. --- Advices related to healthy foods and the medicines that can be made at home in case people are affected by diaherea, which are being broadcasted have become very effective. ( Vikasko Lagi Sanchar, prepared by HMG and UNESCO, 2035, page 32)

The effectiveness of radio in the development of agriculture sector can be gauged by the success of Budhi Ama Ra JTA on Radio Nepal. The program that provides information about the methods of farming in scientific way through an interesting dialogue between Budhi Ama and JTA was highly reputed and praised programs of Radio Nepal till 1997.

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) survey showed that 71 percent farmers questioned preferred Budhi Ama's format to any others. (BUDIAMA fulfils her mission, by Rupa Joshi, Himal, Vol 0, No 0, May 1997)

These examples show the radio's effectiveness in disseminating information related to development sector. When there was no alternative radio and the Television was yet to be established, Radio Nepal's role remained important to bring awareness about developmental issues in the country.

After the restoration of democracy in 1990, various non-governmental organizations (NGOs) started to air awareness raising programs. The INSEC run Mababadhikar Siksha or 'Human Rights Education' program, Pro-Public run 'Asal Sashan' are its examples. The state-run radio has also been airing many other awareness-raising programs in sponsorship of NGOs. The Radio stations are themselves also producing such programs.

The increased number of F.M radio has also been airing the various education and development-oriented programs. Specially, the community radios have been working to benefit the communities through communication. The interesting fact is that radio stations are due to be established in the remote districts like Humla, Bajura, Kalikot and Jajarkot. These are the important achievement Nepal has gained compared to other South Asian countries. People have had an increased access to communication with these radios. Local radios have become instrumental to raise the issues of people at local level. So, they have become popular among the local masses. Radio Sworgadwari raised the issue and plight of widows who lost their husband during the decade long conflict encouraging them to unite for their common cause. Radio Lumbini raised the issue of Marchbar dam, which encouraged local people to fight for their rights. People living around Madan Pokhara F.M. in Palpa have been greatly influenced by the radio and the people have formed radio listeners club in the villages and blocks. As the local radios raise the issues of daily life of people, people are greatly interested to such radios, according to officials with the local radios. ( Haka Haki, Year 7, Issue 2, 2061).

Radio Madhan Pokhara also started ' Radio Pathshala' that aimed at teaching the students on all subjects through radio. Likewise, Radio Shree Nagar of the same district started a coaching class for SLC giving students for last two years. The program has become very popular around the area. Many other FM stations copied that idea. The local radios have been a tool for advocacy for the cause of human rights, women and Dalits rights as they air the issues related to social justice, various types of discrimination and human rights. (Media Adhyan-1, Martin Chautari )

As an example of development journalism, the Radio Nepal started a program entitled ' Khoj Khabar' in 2054, which covered mainly social and economic issues of rural people. The independently produced program was mainly concentrated to apolitical and development issues. Although the authority closed the program after seven months of its operation, the program became successful to air 250 reports in 187 programs. Out of total reports aired by the program, as many as 51 were agriculture related and 21women related issues. Similarly, it aired 18 health related, 11 related to domestic violence and 9 workers related programs. The program received many responses on the reports related to Rabbis, snake biting and dieheria. Although the program was barred to air, the Radio Nepal was compelled to start similar type of program ' Hamro Gaughar.' This shows the popularity of the Khoj Khabar among audience.( Radio Nepalko Samajik Itihas, Khojkhabarko Khoji, Martin Chautari, 2061)

Radio Nepal started air similar type of program ' HakaHaki' from Bhadra 13, 2056. Gopal Guragain, a member of HakaHaki team writes—many Nepali adult women started to study after they listened about Rabisara Chhantyal, 52 of Narjakhani VDC of Baglung who became a health volunteer after receiving adult education. The government provided foods to Chepang communities who had to be dependent on forest-foods for their livelihood. Many women wept when they listened to the plight of women in far western Nepal who had to go through inhuman treatment by society during menstruations and delivery period because of their belief on superstitions. The program could influence people in such a way that the HakaHaki listener clubs started to carry out various social, economic and educational activities in their villages. Puspanjali HakaHaki Radio Listners' Club of Ilam started a women saving proramme. Adarsha Haka Haki Radio Listeners' Club of Okhaldhunga, Sayapatri HakaHaki Radio Listners' Club of Morang, Bidio jayashwori HakaHaki Radio Listeners' Club of Khotang and Juneli HakaHaki Radio Listeners' Club of Dhading have set up health centers and are carrying out educational programs in collaboration of government and non-government organizations. A survey carried out in 2000 revealed that HakaHaki radio program was the most listened program among the program being aired by Radio Nepal. People listening to Hakahaki stood at 85.5 per cent compared to just 37.5 percent in case of Ghatna Ra Bichar. ( Radio Nepal Ko Samajik Itihas, Kura HakaHaki, Martin Chautari, 2004) These evidences show development programs could also attract good number of listeners and impact of such radio programs might have impressive. Only thing is that the program should be prepared interestingly.

Bibliography:-

1. Development Communication, Theory and Practice by Uma Narula, page 22, 2005).

2. Nepali Patrakaritako Vikaskram, Press Counicl Nepal, 2055 B.S.

3. Radio Karyakram, Badri Paudyal, NEFEJ, 2060 B.S.

4. Radio Wachan by Raghu Mainali, Community Radio Assistance Center, NEFEJ, 2059 B.S.

5. Radio for Education and Development, Case Studies, by Dean T. Jamison and Emile G. Mcannany, 1977

6. Radio Broadcasting Services rural development, UNESCO, 1965

7. Andy Phipps for One World Radio, and international network of radio organizations, February3, 2004)

8. Communication for Social Change, an INGO working in the communication field --www.cfsc.org)

9. (An example of impact of community radio in Zambia presented by the International Institute for Communication and Development, an INGO, working in different countries including Latin American and Africa

10. Communication Plan-2028, Prakashanko Digdarsan, Press Council Nepal, 2060

11. Vikasko Lagi Sanchar, prepared by HMG and UNESCO, 2035, page 32)

12. (BUDIAMA fulfils her mission, by Rupa Joshi, Himal, Vol 0, No 0, May 1997

13. Haka Haki, Year 7, Issue 2, 2061

14. Media Adhyan-1, Martin Chautari

15. Radio Nepal Ko Samajik Itihas, Kura HakaHaki, Martin Chautari, 2004

Types of Broadcasting Media Radio/TV in Nepal

;g !(@) df ;;f/df lgodLt /]l8of] k|;f/0f ePsf] kfOG5 eg] g]kfn lj=;= @))& ;fndf k|hftfGqLs qmflGtsf a]nf klxnf] k6s lj/f6gu/ h'6 ldnaf6 k|hftGq /]l8of]sf] gfddf /]l8of]sf] :yfkgf ePsf] lyof] . To;j]nf ePsf] /]l8of] k|;f/0fdf elgPsf] lyof] . of] /]l8of] k|hftGq /]l8of] xf] xfdL d'lSt ;u|fdsf] df]rf{af6 af]ln/x]sf 5f} . h'g /]l8of] k|hftGqsf] :yfkgf kl5 sf7df8f}+df ;fl/Psf] lyof] . clxn]sf] /]l8of] g]kfn o;}sf] ;'wfl/Psf] ?k xf] .

csf{] tkm{ l6eL k|;f/0fsf] s'/f ubf{ @)$! Dff3 !& ut]af6 k/LIf0f k|;f/0f u/]/ @)$@ k'if ! ut] b]lv lgodLt k|;f/0f ePsf] kfOG5 . clxn]sf] g]kfn 6]lnlehg o;}sf] ?k xf] . o;/L x]bf{ g]kfndf /]l8of] / l6lesf] k|;f/0fsf] ;'?jft To;j]nfsf] /]l8of] s;/L s'g cj:yfdf s;sf] :jfldTjdf k|;f/0f eof] eGg] s]xL tYo km]nf gk/]klg k|hftGqsf] :yfkgf kl5 lgodLt ug{] sfd ;/sf/L :t/af6 ePsf] kfOG5 eg] l6lesf] cj:yf klg ToxL xf] .

/]l8of] tyf l6lesf] k|;f/0fsf] ljsf; / o;sf k|ljw kIf o;sf k|sf/ / :jfldTj / k|;f/0fsf] p2]Zosf] pNn]v ug'{ eGbf klxn] o;sf] Joj;foLs k|;f/0fsf] aftfj/0f agfpg dxTjk"0f{ e"ldsf v]Ng] @)$^ ;fnsf] hgcfGbf]ng, To;sf] ;kmntf / To;kl5sf] ;+ljwfg tyf To;n] cjnDjg u/]sf kIfx?sf rrf{ ug'{ ;fGb{les b]lvG5 . elgG5 , of] ;To klg xf] ls /]l8of], l6le dfq geO ;du| ;~rf/dfWoodsf ljsf;df @)$^ ;fnsf] cfGbf]ng kl5 ag]sf] ;+ljwfg @)$& n] lnPsf] v'Nnf gLlt / To; cGt{ut cfPsf] /fli6«o ;+rf/ gLlt @)$( / @)$( ;fnsf] k|;f/0f P]g dxTjk"0f{ pknAwLsf] ?kdf lng ;lsG5 .

o;/L ;+rf/ gLlt P]g / To; cGt{ut ckgfOPsf] gLlh If]qnfO{ klg Pkm Pd k|;f/0f cg'dlt lbg] lglt lnOof] t/ @)%@ ;fn ;Dd k|;f/0f lgodfjnL NofOPg . ;+rf/ sdL{x?sf] 7"nf] bjfa / o; If]qsf] cys k|of;kl5 @)%@ ;fndf k|;f/0f lgodfjnL NofOof] / gLlh If]qnfO{ lglZrt ;t{ ;lxt /]l8of] k|;f/0fsf] cg'dlt lbOof] . To;kl5 @)%$ h]i7 % b]lv /]l8of] k|;f/0fsf] ;'?jft eof] . o;n] /]l8of] k|;f/0fdf gof“ cfofd ylkof] . t/ o; eGbf klxn] /]l8of] g]kfnn] cfkm\gf] dftxtdf !)) d]3fxh{df sf7df8f}+ pkTosfdf PkmPd k|;f/0f ub{Yof] . o;/L clxn] ;Dd cfOk'Ubf /]l8of] k|;f/0fdf g]kfn clw/fHo e/L @)) eGbf al9 PkmPd k|;f/0fsf] cg'dlt kfO;s]sf 5g eg] l6lesf] If]qdf klg !) j6f htL l6le k|;f/0fsf] cg'dtL kfO;s]sf 5g .

g]kfndf lgDg ;+rgfsf k|;f/0fsf] pkl:ytL kfOG5 .

k|;f/0f dfWodsf k|sf/

/]l8of]

k|ljlwsf cwf/df M—

ldl8od j]e (MW)

PkmPd (FM)

;6{ j]e (SW)

cgnfOg /]l8of] (Internet Radio)

:of6nfO6 /]l8of] (Satellite radio)

k|ljlwut ?kdf x]bf{ g]kfnaf6 k|;f/0f x'g] /]l8of] ltg k|sf/sf /x]sf 5g . lt x'g ldl8od j]e k|zf/0f cGt{ut /]l8of] g]kfn, PkmPd cgt{ut /]l8o]f ;u/dfyf , / ;6{ j]e cGt{ut klg /]l8of] g]kfnsf] ljleGg k|zf/0fx? . k|zf/0f u/Lg] ;fdfu|Lsf] ;|f]tfdfem ;lgg] :t/Lotfsf] cfwf/df of] jlu{s/0f u/LPsf] xf] . ldl8od j]eaf6 k|zf/0f x'g] ;fdfu|Ldf eGbf ;6{j]e af6 k|zf/0f u/LPsf] ;fdfu|L w]/} 6f9fsf ;|f]tfx?n] klg ;'Gg ;Sg] x'G5g . t/ ldl8od j]edf eGbf ;6{ j]edf :t/Lotf eg] sd g} x'G5 . o:t}u/L PkmPd eg] d'ntM ;fgf] If]qsf] nflu k|zf/0f ul/g] xf] . o;af6 k|zf/0f x'g] ;fdfu|Lx? :6]/Lof] :t/sf x'g] u5{ . kl5Nnf] ;dodf g]kfndf PkmPdsf] ;Vofdf j[l4 ePsf] 5 . sf7df8f}+ pkTosfdf dfq} Ps bh{g eGbf al9 Pkm Pd :6];gx? ;~rngdf cfO/x]sf 5g .

cgnfOg /]l8of] M— OG6/g]6 dfkm{t k|zf/0f ul/g] /]l8of] cgnfOg /]l8of] xf] . jN8{jfO8 j]e dfkm{t ;'Gg ;lsg] o;nfO{ j]e sfl:6ª\u klg elgG5 . O /]l8of]sf] gfdn] klg of] kl/lrt 5 .

k/Dk/fut /]l8of] / cgnfOg /]l8of]sf] aLrsf] k|d'v leGgt eg]sf] oxL xf] sL cgnfOg /]l8of] OG6/g]6 pknAw ePsf ljZjsf h'g;'s} :yfgaf6 ;'Gg ;lsG5 eg] k/Dk/fut /]l8of] l;ldt :yfgaf6 dfq ;'Gg ;lsG5 . k/Dk/fut /]l8of]df h:t} cgnfOg /]l8of]df klg ;'rgf dgf]/~hg lzIff k|bt ;fdfu|L pknAw u/fOG5 .

;g\ !((# df sfn{dfnfd'8 eGg] JolStn] ljZjdf g} klxnf] k6s cgnfOg /]l8of] :6];g (Internet Blog Radio) ;~rfngdf NofPsf lyP .

:of6]nfO6 /]l8of M— Ps} jfSo df eGbf :of6]nfO6 /]l8of] Tof] xf] h;af6 aHg] ;fdfu|L :of6]nfO6af6 k|If]k0f x'G5 . cGtl/Ifdf tkm{sf] e"–pku|x / e"–pku|xsf] lgoGq0fdf /x]sf] /]l8of] pks/0fx?s] l7s tl/sfaf6 sfd ul//x]sf 5g, 5}gg cflb s'/f kl/If0f ug{}, lgoGq0f ug{] h:tf sfd ug{] ;+rf/ s]Gb|klg cGt/LIf s} efu leq kb{5 . cGtl/Ifdf /x]sf] e'pku|xsf] e'efudf /x]sf] cy{:6];gaf6 k|;fl/t /]l8of] t/ª\u k|fKt x'g] k|s[ofnfO{ cklnª\s elgG5 . e'–pku|xaf6 cy{:6];g tkm{ k|;f/Lt x'g] k|s[ofnfO{ 8fpg–ln+s elgG5 . cklnªs ;+jfxs lk|msj]G;Lx?sf ;+s]t4f/f k|fKt ug{], ;+s]tnfO{ lj:t[t ug{] 8fpg ln+s lk|mSj]G;L j}08df kl/j{tg ug{} h:tf sfd ug{] e"–pku|xl:yt ;fwgnfO{ 6«fG;kf]G8/ elgG5 . 6«fG;kf]G8/sf] l/l;e/df k|fKt /]l8of] ;+s]ts

f] kfj/ !)) lksf]jf6 b]vL ! Gofgf]af6 x'G5 eg] 6«fG;kf]G8/sf] PlDKnkmfo/sf] cfpgk'6 kfj/ !# b]lv !)) jf6 ;Dd x'g] x'G5 .

Joj:yfkgsf] cfwf/df

;fj{hgLs /]l8of], gLlh Jofkf/Ls /]l8of] / ;fd'bfoLs /]l8of]

;fj{gLs /]l8of] M— of] ;fdfGotof /fHo jf /fHo lgoGqLt ;+:yfn] rnfpg] /]l8of] xf] . o:tf] /]l8of]sf] p2]Zo ;fdfGotof gfu/Ls / ;dfhsf] lxtsf nflu sfo{qmdx? k|;f/0f ug{} x'G5 . o:tf] k|;f/0f k|fou/L /fli6«o tyf cGt/f{li6«o :t/df u/LG5 . h:t} /]l8of] g]kfn, cn Ol08of /]l8of] , ljlj;L cflb .

gLlh Jofkf/Ls /]l8of] M— JolSt jf Jofkf/Ls k|lti7fgx?n] lj1fkg / k|fof]lht sfo{qmdx? u/]/ gfkmf sdfpg] p2]Zon] of] /]l8of] rnfOPsf] x'G5 . gLlh If]qx?df v'n]sf sflGt'/ , Od]h, cflb o;sf pbfx/0f x'g .

;fd'bfoLs /]l8of]M— ;d'bfosf dflg;x?n] s'g} ;+ul7t ;d"x lgsfo jf ;+3 ;:yfsf] dfWoodaf6 rnfpg] /]l8of]nfO{ xfdL ;fd'bfoLs /]l8of] eGb5f}+ . o;n] ;d'bfosf] afl;Gbfx?sf] lxt / enfOsf sfo{qmdx? k|zf/0f ug{] ub{5 . eg] of] gfkmfd'vL x'b}g . /]l8of] ;u/dfyf, d]6«f] PkmPd, n'lDagL Pkm Pd, kfNkfsf] dbgkf]v/f cflbnfO{ ;fd'bfoLs /]l8of]sf] ?kdf lnOG5 . ;fd'bfoLs /]l8of]n] gfkmf sdfP/ dgUo wg cfh{g ug{] p2]Zo t /fv]sf] x'b}g t/ cfkm\gf sfo{qmdx? lbuf] ?kdf rnfpg / cfkm\g} v'6\6fdf pleg ;Sg] x'g o;n] klg s]xL g s]xL sdfpg' kg{] x'G5 . o;sf nflu ;fd'bfoLs /]l8of]n] s]xL dfqfdf lj1fkg / k|of]lht sfo{qmdx? k|zf/0f ug{] u5{ .

k|zf/0f ;fdfu|Lsf cfwf/df M—

;drf/d"ns, lzIffd"ns / dgf]/~hgfTds

;dfrf/d"ns M— ljz'4 ?kdf ;dfrf/d"ns ;fdfu|Lx? dfq} k|zf/0f ug{} /]l8of]nfO{ ;dfrf/d"ns /]l8of] elgG5 . g]kfndf o;sf] k|of]u ePsf] b]lvb}g . t/ o;tkm{ pGd'v x'b} uO/x]sf /]l8of] x? eg] 5g . h:t} pHofnf] Pkm Pd .

lzIffd"ns M— ;"rfgfnfO{ ljz]if s]lGb|t u/]/ ;fdfu|Lx? k|;f/0f ug{] /]l8of] g} lzIffd"ns /]l8of] cGt{ut kb{5g . o; /]l8of]df ;|f]tfsf nflu cfjZos ;Dk"0f{ hfgsf/L pknAw u/fpg] eGg] pb]Zo /flvG5 . h:t} /]l8of] g]kfn, ;u/dfyf Pkm Pd, cWofTd Hof]tL cflb, .

dgf]/~hg M— dgf]/~hgnfO{ d'Vo p2]Zo /fv]/ k|;f/0f ul/g] u/LG5 . o;f] x'bf dfg]/~hg ;“u ;DalGwt 6s ;f], xf:oJoª\o, ;f+lutLs sfo{qmd g} o;sf ;fdfuL x'g] u5{g . lx6\; PkmPd, 6fOD; Pkm Pd o;sf] pbfx/0f xf] .

6]nLlehg

k|ljlwsf cfwf/df 6]lnlehgsf k|sf/x?

;txut k|ljlw / e"–pku|x k|ljlw

;txut M— 6]lnlehgaf6 k|zfl/t ul/g] ;fdfu|Lx? ljeGg :yfgdf agfOPsf 6fj/sf] dfWoodn] l6le ;]6 ;Dd k'¥ofpg] dfWood xf] . o;/L k|zf/0f ubf{ ef}uf]lns ljs6tfsf sf/0f k|zf/0fdf ;d:of pTkGg x'g] u5{ . g]kfndf clxn] o:tf l6eL s'g} klg k|zf/0fdf /x]sf 5}gg .

e"–pku|x k|ljlw M— of] k|ljlwdf cfwf/Lt 6]lnlehg k|;f/0fx? ;txut k|ljlw h:tf] PG6]gf dfqsf] ;fxotfn] l6eL ;]6;Dd k'U] geO :6];gdf /x]sf] cy{ :6];g dfkm{t cGtl/Ifdf /x]sf] e"–pku|x ;Dd k'U5 / o;}sf] dfWooaf6 ljleGg s]a'n sDkgL x'b} l6eL ;]6 ;Dd cfOk'U5 . o;f] x'bf cfZos kg{] ;;f/sf] hf] ;'s} / hxf“ ;'s} klg l6eL x]g{ ;lsg] x'G5 . g]kfn g]kfndf /x]sf sflGtk'/, g]kfn l6 eL o;} cGt{ut kb{5g .

cgnfOg l6eL M— OG6/g]6 dfkm{t k|zf/0f ul/g] l6eL cgnfOg l6eL] xf] . jN8{jfO8 j]e dfkm{t ;'Gg ;lsg] o;nfO{ j]e sfl:6ª\u klg elgG5 . O l6eLsf] gfdn] klg of] kl/lrt 5 .

k/Dk/fut l6eL / cgnfOg l6eLsf] aLrsf] k|d'v leGgt eg]sf] oxL xf] sL cgnfOg l6eL OG6/g]6 pknAw ePsf ljZjsf h'g;'s} :yfgaf6 ;'Gg x]g{ ;lsG5 eg] k/Dk/fut l6eL l;ldt :yfgaf6 dfq ;'Gg ;lsG5 . k/Dk/fut l6eLdf h:t} cgnfOg l6eL df klg ;'rgf dgf]/~hg lzIff k|bt ;fdfu|L pknAw u/fOG5 .

Joj:yfkgsf] cfwf/df 6]lnlehgsf k|sf/x?

;/sf/L / gLlh

;/sf/L M— ;/sf/4f/f jf ;/sf/ dftfxtdf /x]sf ;+:yfx?4f/f ;~rfng ul/Psf] l6eL ;/sf/L cGt{ut jb{5g . o;df ;/sf/n] cfkm\gf utLjlwnfO{ k|d'v ;dfrf/ ;fdfu|L agfpg] u/]sf] kfOG5 . Ps lx;fan] eGbf o:tf l6eLx? ;/sf/sf] d'vkq g} x'g . h:t} g]kfn l6eL .

gLlh M— s'g} JolSt jf Jofkf/Ls k|lti7fgn] gfkmf sdfpg] pb]Zon] ;~rfng u/]sf] l6eL g} lglh l6eL xf] . @)%$ ;fn kl5 g]kfndf lghL l6eLx?sf] ;~rfngsf] nfuL v'Vnf u/LPsf] xf] . xfn g]kfndf cfwf bh{g eGbf al9 gLlh l6eL Rofgnx? /x]sf 5g . h:t} sflGtk'/ l6eL, Od]h l6eL, cflb .

k|zf/0f ;dfu|Lsf cfwf/df 6]lnlehgsf k|sf/x?

;dfrf/d"ns, lzIff d"ns / dgf]/~hg

g]kfndf /x]sf ;Dk"0f{ l6eL Rofgnx? lzIffd"ns Rofgnsf] ?kdf lnOG5 . ;dfrf/ d"ns sfo{qmdsf] p2]Zo /fv]/ cfPsf] PleGo"h l6eL eg] xfn ;Dd ;~rfng x'g ;s]s] 5}g . eg] dgf]/GhgftTds l6eL eg]/ g]kfn l6eL @ nfO{ lng] ul/G5 .

o;/L g]kfndf /]l8of]sf] If]qdf Jofkf/Ls ;fd'bfoL ;/sf/L nufot ;a} k|sf/sf /]l8of] k|;f/0fsf] pkl:ytL kfOG5 eg] l6lesf] If]qdf ;/s/L / lglh dfq /x]sf] kfOG5 . ;VofTds lx;fadf x]bf{klg /]l8of]sf pkl:ytL l6lesf]t'ngfdf w]/} kfOg5 . l6eLsf] ahf/ g]kfnsf] ;Gbedf ;fgf] / vrf{n' ePsfsf/0fn] klg sd kfOG5 eg] /]l8of] k|;f/0f eg] ;fgf] If]qdf Jofks kfOG5 . o;n] nufgL ahf/ / pkef]Stfsf] g]kfnL k|s[lt x]bf{ /]l8of] k|;f/0f nf]slk|o kfOG5 .

/]l8of] g]kfn OlGhlgol/ª dxfzfvfsf k|d'v /d]zhª\u sfsL{sf cg';f/ /]l8of] g]kfn tLg lsl;dsf] k|ljlwdf k|;f/0f eO{/x]sf] 5 .

!– ;6{ j]e k|ljlw

@–ldl8od j]e k|ljlw

#–Pkm=Pd= k|ljlw

;6{ j]e k|;f/0fdf /]l8of] g]kfn;Fu clxn] %))% KH sf] Pp6f lk|mSj]G;L 5 . of] lk|mSj]G;L c:6]«lnog ;/sf/sf] ;xof]udf @)#! ;fndf b"/ lzIff sfo{qmdsf] nflu lzIff dGqfnonfO{ k|fKt ePsf] xf] . ldl8od j]e cGtu{t z'?df ;'v]{t, e};]kf6L, w/fg / kf]v/f u/L $ j6f !)) kw af6 z'? ePsf] xf] . o;}u/L !)w b]lv ! kw ;Ddsf] 6«fG;ld6/df hg3gTj a9L ePsf] 7fpFdf Pkm=Pd= k|ljlwaf6 k|;f/0f eO{/x]sf] 5 . lo ;a} k|;f/0fnfO{ lnª\s]h ug{ eL–:of6 k|ljlw ckgfO{Psf] OlGhlgol/ª dxfzfvfsf k|d'v sfsL{ atfpg'x'G5 . o:t} u/L l6 eL k|;f/0fdf g]kfnn] VHF k|ljlw cjnDag u/]sf] kfOG5 .

sfo{qmdsf] k|;f/0fsf] gd'gf x]bf{klg lzIff ;''rgf / dgf]/~hgnfO{ al9 hf]8 lbPsf] kfOg5 . h;sf ;/sf/L / ;fd'bfoLs /]l8of]x?n] dgf]/~hgfTds sfo{qmd dfkm{t ;|f]tfsf] dg lhTg] u/]sf] kfOG5 .

;du|df :jfldTj p2]Zo / ahf/ Joj:yfsf lx;fan] k|;f/0f dfWoodnfO{ o;/L km/s 5'6\6ofpg ;lsG5 .

o;/L /]l8of] k|;f/0fdf ljljwtf ;fy} ;a} k|sf/ /]l8of] k|;f/0f g]kfn ;'? ePsf 5g . t/ l6eL eg] ;/sf/L / lghL If]qdf dfq} 5g . ;fd'bfoLs l6eL 5}gg .

;du|df g]kfnn] c? ;a} s'/f cGo ljb]zL d'n'saf6 l;Sg k/] klg /]l8of] k|;f/0fsf If]qdf c? d'n'sn] g]kfnaf6 l;Sb} 5g eg] l;Sg' kg{] cj:yf klg 5 . lsgeg] g]kfn bIfL0f ol;ofdfg} /]l8of] k|;f/0fsf] If]qd} pbfx/0f ag]/ b]vf k/]sf] 5 .

t/ ;a} s'/fx? ;sf/fTds dfq} 5}gg . hyfefjL /]l8of] k|;f/0f cg'dlt lbbf To;af6 kg{] gsf/fTds k|efjsf] klg ;du| d'Nofªsg u/]/ o; If]qnfO{ cem Joj:yLt ug'{ kg{] :ki6 gLlt lgod agfP/ ;/sf/af6 u/Lg] Jojxf/df klg Ps ?ktf Nofpg' kg{] b]lvG5 .

h:t} ;d:ofx?,

;/sf/L lj1kgsf] Psflwsf/ ;/sf/L ldl8ofdf dfq},

k|;f/0f dfWoddf ;a} k|sf/sf ;~rf/ dfWoodnfO{ Pp6} P]g lgod /fVbf ;d:of cfpg],

sf7df8f} leq / afxL/sf k|;f/0f dfWoodnfO{ Pp6} lgod nufpbf aflx/sf] ahf/ Joj:yf cg';f/ ;dfgtf gcfpg]

zGbe{ ;fdfu|Lx? M—

k|s[lt

cjwf/0ff

:jfldTj

>f]tf

pQ/bfloTj

z}nL

nIo

pbfx/0f

;/sf/L

/]l8of]

kbLo

;/sf/L

lglZqmo

zf;sk|lt

cf}krfl/s

v/f] k|rf/afhL

!)) Pkm Pd

-/]l8of] g]kfn_

;fd'bflos /]l8of]

;xeflutfd"ns

;fd"lxs

;lqmo

;dfhk|lt

:jefljs

;fd"lxs sNof0f

-/]l8of] ;u/dfyf_

Jofkfl/s

/]l8of]

ahf/d'vL

lghL

:jR5Gb

dflnsk|lt

agfj6L

gfkmf cfh{g

-sflGtk'/ Pkm Pd_

/]l8of] sfo{qmd, ;fd'bfoLs /]l8of] ;xof]u s]Gb|, ab|L kf}8\ofn

;fd"bfoLs /]l8of] k|zf/0f lgb{]zLsf , ;fd'bfoLs /]l8of] ;xof]u s]Gb|, g]kfn aftfj/0f kqsf/ ;d"x .

pb\3f]if0f bz{g , ljBfyL{ k':ts e08f/ , s[i0f ;'gjf/ æclenfifLÆ

k|zf/0f kqsfl/tf xft] lstfj, b'uf{gfy ;df{ -;Dkfbs_

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PkmPd /]l8of]sf] lj:tf/

PkmPkm zf;ssf] cfFvfsf] sl;+u/

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